I,.,,,..  *«  ■ 


• • 


' 


/ 


V 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/peruphysicalteat00vivi_0 


PERU 


' 


X 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  HANDBOOKS 


PE  R U 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES,  NATURAL  RESOURCES, 
MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION,  MANUFACTURES 
AND  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 


BY 

E.  C.  VIVIAN 


NEW  YORK 

D.  APPLETON  & COMPANY 


MCMXXI 


Printed  by 

Sir  Isaac  Pitman  & Sons,  Ltd.,  London,  England. 


CONTENTS 


CHAP.  PACE 

I.  GEOGRAPHY,  PHYSICAL  FEATURES,  AND 

CLIMATE  ......  1 

II.  NATURAL  HISTORY  (FLORA  AND  FAUNA)  . 13 

III.  HISTORY 20 

IV.  THE  INCA  AND  PRE-INCA  RUINS.  . . 39 

V.  DEPARTMENTS,  PROVINCES,  AND  POPULATION  55 

VI.  CONSTITUTION,  GOVERNMENT,  AND  DEFENCE  80 

VII.  NATIONAL  FINANCE  .....  85 

VIII.  COMMERCIAL  AND  GENERAL  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  95 

IX.  INLAND  COMMUNICATION  AND  TRANSPORT  . 110 

X.  PORTS  AND  HARBOURS  . . . .123 

XI.  AGRICULTURE  ; FOREST  PRODUCTS  J GUANO  J 
LAND  TENURE  AND  COLONISATION  ) GRAZING 
AND  CATTLE-BREEDING  . . . .142 

XII.  MINING  AND  MINERALS  ; MINING  LAWS  . 160 

XIII.  MANUFACTURES  AND  MINOR  INDUSTRIES  . 171 

XIV.  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  . . . .178 

XV.  GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS  . . . 184 

APPENDICES — 

(A.)  POSTAL  AND  TELEGRAPH  GUIDE  . 213 

(B.)  STEAMSHIP  SERVICES  . . .218 

(C.)  CURRENCY  : GENERAL  TABLE  OF 

SOUTH  AMERICAN  CURRENCIES  ; 
PERUVIAN  CURRENCY  . . 221 

Y 


IA— (2247 


VI 


CONTENTS 


appendices — continued  PAGE 

(d.)  weights  and  measures  . . 222 

(e.)  commercial  treaties  and 

conventions  . . . 223 

(F.)  DIPLOMATIC  REPRESENTATIVES — 

OF  PERU  TO  U.S.A.  . . 225 

OF  U.S.A.  TO  PERU  . . 225 

OF  PERU  TO  GREAT  BRITAIN.  225 
OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  TO  PERU.  225 
INDEX 227 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

map  of  peru  (physical)  . . . frontispiece 

VISCAS  BRIDGE,  OROYA  RAILWAY  . facing  6 

IN  THE  FOREST  OF  CHANCHAMAYO  . . .14 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CUZCO  .....  22 

A QUICHUA  INDIAN  OF  PERU — A DESCENDANT  OF  THE 
INCA  RACE.  THE  BACKGROUND  SHOWS  OLD  INCA 
MASONRY  .......  40 

A STREET  OF  THE  INCAS  IN  THE  OLD  CITY  OF  CUZCO  48 
ENTRANCE  TO  A TEMPLE  .....  52 

LOS  PORTALES,  PLAZA  MAYOR,  LIMA  ...  54 

CATHEDRAL,  LIMA 84 

SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS,  LIMA  . . . 104 

MAP  OF  RAILWAYS  AND  NAVIGABLE  WATERWAYS  . 110 

GALERA  JUNCTION,  OROYA  RAILWAY  . . .118 

THE  DOCKS,  CALLAO 122 

MARKET,  HUANCAYO 146 

PACK  LLAMAS,  FOR  TRANSPORTING  MINERALS.  . 160 

CUSTOMS  HOUSE,  CALLAO 178 

coloured  map  of  south  America  . end  of  volume 


VI 


PERU 


CHAPTER  I 

GEOGRAPHY,  PHYSICAL  FEATURES,  AND  CLIMATE 

The  Republic  of  Peru  is  situated  on  the  western  side  of 
the  Continent  of  South  America.  To  the  north  lie 
Ecuador  and  Colombia,  to  the  east  Brazil  and  Bolivia, 
to  the  south  Chile  ; on  the  west,  her  seaboard  is  washed 
by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  actual  area  is  still  uncertain,  though  the  long 
boundary  disputes  with  the  neighbouring  republics  are 
being  gradually  settled.  An  agreement  with  Chile  was 
signed  in  1912,  and  the  frontier  line  with  Bolivia  has 
been  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Heath  to  that 
of  the  Yaverija.  A definite  arrangement  was  also  made 
in  1910  with  Brazil,  generally  favourable  to  Peru  ; 
and  the  delimitation  is  proceeding  under  a European 
Boundary  Commission,  in  which  several  British  officers 
are  taking  part.  A treaty  was  signed  in  September, 
1909,  between  Peru  and  Colombia,  but  the  delimitation 
has  not  yet  been  made.  The  chief  outstanding  question 
is,  therefore,  that  of  the  Ecuador  frontier,  involving 
something  like  100,000  square  miles  of  territory.  Offers 
of  arbitration  (a)  by  a joint  Commission  of  the  United 
States,  Brazil,  and  Argentina  ; ( b ) by  the  King  of  Spain 
or  the  Hague  Tribunal,  were  accepted  by  Peru,  but 
refused  by  Ecuador.  Military  operations  took  place 


2 


PERU 


on  the  river  Caqueta  in  July,  1911,  in  which  Peru  was 
successful ; but  the  question  is  still  unsettled. 

The  Bolivian  frontier  is  the  most  extensive  of  any, 
while  the  Chilean  boundary  has  been  moved  northward 
since  the  war  of  1879-81,  by  which  the  rich  nitrate  areas 
of  Tarapaca  and  Tacna  were  lost  to  Peru.  The  treaty  after 
the  war  gave  to  Chile  Tarapaca  and  a ten  years’  tenancy 
of  Tacna  and  Arica.  At  the  end  of  that  period  a pleb- 
iscite should  have  been  taken  (in  1894)  to  decide  which 
country  should  retain  the  area,  but  the  popular  vote 
was  not  taken,  since  Chile  asserted  that  the  whole  popu- 
lation should  vote,  while  Peru  claimed  that  only  Peruvians 
had  that  right.  Thus  the  question  was  still  nominally 
undecided  up  to  1912,  when  a definite  agreement  ceded 
Tacna  to  Chile — but,  meanwhile,  the  nitrate  revenues  all 
went  to  the  Chilean  Government.  Exclusive  of  Tacna, 
and  anticipating  the  most  favourable  settlement  of  all 
other  boundary  disputes,  Peruvians  estimate  the  area 
of  their  own  country  at  about  700,000  square  miles, 
and  their  coast  line  at  1,350  miles,  counting  from 
the  Ensenada  of  Santa  Rosa  in  the  north,  to  the  northern 
boundary  of  Tacna. 

Physically,  the  country  falls  naturally  into  three 
zones,  of  which  the  central  or  mountainous  zone  may  be 
further  subdivided  into  three  “ belts,”  differing  in  height 
and  character.  (1)  The  coast  zone,  that  farthest  to  the 
west,  is  a practically  rainless  strip  extending  from  the 
extreme  north  to  the  extreme  south  of  Peru,  and  scarcely 
exceeding  60  miles  in  width  at  any  point ; (2)  the  zone 
of  the  sierras,  or  Andine  region,  follows  the  north-west 
to  south-east  line  of  the  Andes  crests  throughout  the 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  AND  CLIMATE 


3 


country,  and  its  uplands  broaden  out,  especially  in 
the  south,  to  form  the  great  tableland  on  which  Lake 
Titicaca  is  situated,  the  mean  height  being  from  11,000 
to  12,000  ft.  above  sea-level ; (3)  beyond  the  region  of 
the  sierras  lies  the  montana,  or  river  and  forest  zone. 

Roughly  speaking,  the  coastal  zone  occupies  about  a 
tenth  part  of  the  republic,  the  sierra  a fourth  part,  and 
the  montana  occupies  the  remaining  thirteen-twentieths 
of  the  whole — though  it  is  this  zone  which  is  in  question 
through  boundary  disputes. 

The  great  tableland  of  the  sierra  is  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  Andes  proper — this  term  being  applied  in  an 
exclusive  sense  to  the  crests  of  the  main  range  ; the 
western  boundary  is  formed  by  the  western  or  coastal 
Cordillera,  while  numerous  secondary  ridges,  rising  but 
little  above  the  level  of  the  tableland,  are  also  known  as 
cordilleras.  In  the  north,  the  western  range  is  called  the 
Cordillera  Negra,  owing  to  the  absence  of  snow  upon  its 
upper  crests  ; while  the  eastern  range,  the  Andes  proper^ 
is  known  as  the  Cordillera  Nevada.  The  highest  eleva- 
tion to  which  the  coastal  Cordillera  attains  is  about 
16,000  ft.  ; while  the  eastern  or  main  range,  which  main- 
tains a height  of  about  18,000  ft.  between  the  montana 
zone  and  the  Huallaga  river  valley,  forms  the  watershed 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  regions  of  South  America. 
The  principal  peaks  of  the  range  attain  in  Southern  Peru 
a height  of  over  20,000  ft.,  chief  among  them  being 
Coropuna  (22,900  ft.),  and  the  twin-peaked  Huascaran, 
over  22,180  ft.  in  height. 

A striking  feature  in  the  Andine  chain  is  the  occurrence 
of  certain  transverse  ridges,  known  as  “ knots,”  which 


PERU 


connect  the  main  Cordilleras.  In  Bolivia,  the  knot  of 
Potosi  occurs  in  lat.  22°  S.  ; in  Peru,  the  knot  of  Vil- 
canota,  or  Cuzco,  occurs  in  lat.  14°  30'  S.  Between  the 
two  lies  the  great  Titicaca  basin,  360  miles  in  length  and 
100  miles  in  breadth.  Three  chains  run  north  from  the 
Cuzco  knot,  converging,  after  about  440  miles,  near  lat. 
11°  S.,  in  the  knot  of  Pasco.  To  the  north  of  the  country 
the  chains  are  cut  by  the  Maranon  and  Huallaga,  and 
unite  again  in  Ecuador  in  the  knot  of  Loja. 

The  rainless  character  of  the  Coast  Zone  is  due  in  part 
to  the  crests  of  the  Andes,  which  intercept  moisture  from 
the  east  of  the  continent,  and  in  part  to  the  Humboldt 
current,  which,  lower  in  temperature  than  either  the 
surrounding  ocean  or  the  air,  prevents  evaporation  from 
the  sea.  It  is  responsible,  however,  for  the  formation  of 
mists,  which,  in  turn,  admit  the  growth  of  scanty  pastur- 
age in  places  throughout  the  zone.  Small  streams,  flow- 
ing westward  at  intervals  along  the  coast,  give  rise  to 
strips  of  vegetation  in  this  desert  zone  ; and,  wherever 
irrigation  is  possible,  verdure  flourishes.  The  greater 
part  of  the  white  population  of  Peru — about  three- 
quarters  of  a million  in  number — is  concentrated  in  the 
coast  zone,  in  which  Lima,  the  capital  of  the  country,  is 
situated,  as  well  as  the  majority  of  important  Peruvian 
towns.  The  climate  here  is  excellent,  the  temperature 
fairly  constant  throughout  the  year,  and  about  10°  lower 
than  in  corresponding  latitudes  east  of  the  Andes. 
Except  for  the  heavy  mists  which  rise  and  deposit  the 
heavy  dews  which  this  region  enjoys,  the  sun  is  generally 
visible,  but  the  cool  breezes  springing  from  the  south  and 
tempered  by  the  Humboldt  current  render  the  air 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  AND  CLIMATE  5 


peculiarly  healthy.  The  general  appearance  of  this 
coastal  strip  is,  however,  dismally  brown  and  bare,  and 
from  Paita  to  Moquegua  sterility  is  the  rule  ; while  the 
oases  formed  by  the  streams  flowing  from  the  coastal 
cordillera  to  the  shore  are  the  exceptions.  In  these 
spots,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  rice,  maize,  and  other  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  products  are  cultivated,  but  the  output 
of  agricultural  products  is  for  the  present  small. 

The  zone  of  the  Sierras  falls  naturally  into  three  dis- 
tinct “ belts.”  First  of  these  is  a strip  composed  of  the 
foothills  and  valleys  of  the  western  slope,  adjoining  the 
coast  zone,  and  limited  by  the  point  where  the  altitude 
is  between  10,000  and  11,000  ft.  It  is  characterised  by 
a tumbled  confusion  of  jutting  spurs  from  the  central 
tableland  of  the  sierras,  alternating  with  deep  valleys, 
ravines,  and  isolated  hills  and  ridges.  The  geologic 
formation  here  is  granite  on  the  lowest  levels,  lava- 
capped  in  the  south,  and  occupying  the  western  extremi- 
ties of  the  belt  ; while  higher  and  farther  inland  are 
sandstone  and  limestone,  quartzite,  and  conglomerates, 
bearing  rich  veins  of  gold,  copper,  quicksilver,  and  other 
minerals — little  worked,  but  capable  of  being  trans- 
formed into  one  of  the  great  mineral  fields  of  the  world. 
In  the  valleys  of  this  region,  maize  flourishes  ; and 
alfalfa  is  also  largely  grown,  together  with  most  of  the 
cereals  of  the  temperate  zone.  The  belt  of  the  foothills 
is  fairly  well  watered,  its  climate  is  healthy  (except  where 
stagnant  water  gives  rise  to  malaria,  known  locally  as 
terciana),  and  it  is  on  the  whole  one  of  the  best  parts  of 
Peru  from  the  view  point  of  commercial  possibilities. 

The  next  belt  eastward  is  the  great  tableland  of  the 

2— (2247) 


6 


PERU 


Andes  proper,  ranging  from  11,500  to  13,500  ft.  above 
sea-level,  desolate  and  treeless  for  the  most  part,  and 
interspersed  with  lakes  and  stretches  of  morass,  between 
which  extend  tracts  underlaid  by  quartzite  or  limestone, 
and  covered  thinly  by  the  ichu  or  mountain  grass.  Sheep, 
llamas,  alpacas,  and  vicunas  graze  here  in  great  numbers, 
and  the  inhabitants  are  mainly  Indians,  devoted  to  the 
care  of  the  live  stock.  The  great  tablelands,  unsurpassed 
in  extent  anywhere  in  the  world  except  by  the  Tibetan 
plateau,  are  known  locally  as  punas.  At  their  western 
edge  rises  the  third  belt  of  the  upland  zone,  the  great 
cordillera  of  the  true  Andes  range,  white  clad  above 
the  height  of  16,000  ft.  The  range  consists  of  two  and 
sometimes  three  parallel  lines  of  summits,  between  which 
the  Peruvian  feeders  of  the  Amazon  have  their  courses  ; 
and  in  these  central  valleys  there  exists  a sparse  popula- 
tion devoted  to  cattle-breeding,  mining,  and  agriculture, 
cut  off  from  the  outer  world  by  the  vast  heights  that 
surround  them — a world  with  which  they  communicate 
only  by  means  of  pack  mule  tracks  across  the  mountain 
passes.  The  largest  of  these  valleys  is  the  great  basin 
of  Lake  Titicaca,  which  in  old  time  was  reputed  to  drain 
to  the  Amazon,  but  which  now  empties  its  waters  only 
into  Lake  Poopo  to  the  south,  forming  with  the  last- 
named  lake  an  inland  lacustrine  basin,  unconnected  with 
the  ocean.  In  the  hill-encircled  bolsones,  or  valleys,  of 
these  southern  punas,  flourished  the  pre-Spanish  civilisa- 
tions of  Peru — Inca,  Aymara,  and  others  of  which  even 
the  names  have  vanished — for  in  these  valleys  are  found 
both  the  climate  and  the  products  of  the  temperate 
zone ; though  the  climate  of  the  punas  themselves  is 


Viscas  Bridge,  Oroya  Railway 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  AND  CLIMATE  7 


not  all  that  could  be  desired,  since  rain,  snow,  and 
at  times  keen  winds  make  a very  inclement  region  of  the 
exposed  tablelands  of  the  sierras.  The  only  break  in  the 
average  elevation  of  the  chain  is  in  the  north,  where  on 
the  Ecuadorean  frontier  a gap  exists,  only  6,700  ft.  above 
sea-level.  No  other  pass  falls  below  14,000  ft.  in  height. 

The  Montana,  the  most  easterly  zone  of  Peru,  com- 
prises the  lowest  Amazonian  slopes  of  the  Andes,  and 
not,  as  its  name  would  seem  to  imply,  the  mountains 
themselves.  It  extends  only  up  to  about  5,000  ft.  in 
height  from  the  east.  Except  for  this  limitation  of 
height  on  the  west,  the  montana  is  devoid  of  natural 
boundaries,  and  consists  of  a tropical,  low-lying  area, 
alluvial  in  character,  and  intersected  by  a network  of 
large  and  generally  navigable  rivers,  which  contain 
multitudes  of  fish.  The  land  is  covered  with  dense 
forest  growth,  rich  in  useful  plants  and  valuable  timbers, 
and  containing  vast  quantities  of  rubber  trees,  which 
have  formed  the  basis  of  a prosperous  and  notorious 
industry  for  some  years  past.  Tree-ferns,  palms,  and 
bamboos  of  many  varieties  abound,  and  the  forests  are 
inhabited  by  almost  every  species  of  animal  that  South 
America  can  boast,  though  the  human  population  is  made 
up  of  only  a few  tribes  of  savage  Indians,  whose  numbers 
have  been  woefully  reduced  during  the  past  two  or  three 
decades.  Among  the  crops  which  thrive  abundantly  in 
the  montana  region  are  cacao,  coffee,  sugar-cane,  manioc, 
and  coca  ; while  a valuable  kind  of  cinchona  bark,  the 
Cinchona  Calisaya,  is  found  here. 

Rivers. — The  three  main  rivers  of  Peru  are  the  great 
parent  streams  of  the  Amazon,  named  respectively  the 


PERU 


Maranon,  usually  regarded  as  the  true  source  of  the 
Amazon,  the  Huallaga,  and  the  Ucayali.  These,  together 
with  some  of  the  Ecuadorean  affluents,  converge  beyond 
Tabatinga  on  the  Brazilian  frontier  to  form  the  Solimoes, 
or  middle  course  of  the  Amazon.  These  three,  chief 
among  the  Peruvian  rivers,  occupy  courses  roughly 
parallel  to  each  other,  flowing  from  south  to  north.  The 
Maranon,  flowing  as  it  does  along  the  valley  enclosed  by 
the  western  summits  of  the  coastal  cordillera,  owes  its 
title  as  source  of  the  Amazon  to  its  position  nearest  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  rather  than  to  its  comparative  import- 
ance ; for  the  Ucayali,  most  easterly  of  the  three,  is  a 
greater  river  at  the  confluence,  and  also  has  a greater 
navigable  length.  The  Ucayali  occupies  the  valley  lying 
along  the  east  of  the  Andes’  crests,  and  together  with  its 
tributary,  the  Pachitea,  is  navigable  for  small  steamers 
for  a distance  of  over  800  miles  ; while  other  of  its 
tributaries,  the  Apurimac,  Urubamba,  and  Vilcanota, 
provide  waterways  navigable  for  small  craft  in  the  south 
of  the  country.  Between  these  two  extremes  of  the 
Peruvian  highlands,  the  Huallaga  cuts  its  way  through 
the  heart  of  the  great  plateau,  rising  in  the  vicinity  of 
Cerro  de  Pasco,  and  flowing  directly  north  by  way  of 
Huanuco,  between  the  great  enclosing  ranges  of  the 
Andine  plateau. 

In  the  extreme  east  of  the  montana  region  the  Embira, 
the  Purus,  the  Aquiri  or  Acre,  the  Madre  de  Dios,  and 
the  Beni  have  their  rise  in  a network  of  morasses  and 
small  streams,  flowing  with  an  average  easterly  trend  to 
augment  the  Madeira  and  other  great  southern  tribu- 
taries of  the  Amazon.  They  traverse  districts  rich  in 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  AND  CLIMATE  9 


agricultural  possibilities,  though  little  visited,  and 
possessed  of  a climate  that  may,  without  exaggeration, 
be  termed  virulent. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  1851  a treaty  was  con- 
cluded between  Peru  and  Brazil,  securing  to  Peru  full 
freedom  for  its  shipping  from  Tabatinga  to  Para  on  the 
Atlantic  seaboard.  At  the  present  time  there  is  a regular 
steamboat  service  between  Iquitos  and  Para,  maintained 
by  the  Booth  Steamship  Company  in  connection  with  its 
ocean-going  steamers  to  Liverpool  and  European  ports. 

The  Maranon,  rising  in  Lake  Lauricocha,  slightly  to  the 
north  of  Cerro  de  Pasco,  has  its  source  at  14,250  ft.  above 
sea-level,  and  flows  north-west  for  some  distance  in  a 
series  of  unnavigable  rapids,  until  at  the  falls  of  Manse- 
riche  it  is  only  550  ft.  above  sea-level.  Navigation  is 
possible  only  below  Manseriche,  and  in  its  lower  course, 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  Huallaga  and  Ucayali, 
the  Maranon  traverses  territory  still  under  dispute  as  to 
proprietorship,  being  either  Peruvian  or  Ecuadorean. 

The  Ucayali,  on  the  other  hand,  is  formed  of  two  great 
systems  of  waterways  : its  most  southerly  source  is  in 
the  small  Lake  de  la  Raya,  just  north  of  the  watershed 
between  the  Amazonian  system  and  that  which  forms 
Lake  Titicaca.  At  this  point,  so  far  as  confused  nomen- 
clature w'ill  admit  of  certainty,  the  Ucayali  is  known  as 
the  Vilcamayo,  which  later  becomes  the  Urubamba,  and 
is  joined  by  the  Paucartambo  from  the  east.  Beyond 
this  junction  the  main  stream  is  joined  by  the  second 
system  of  rivers  which,  flowing  from  the  south-west, 
consists  of  the  Catonga  or  Apurimac,  with  numerous 
mountain  tributaries  ; and  the  Jauja  or  Mantaro,  which 


10 


PERU 


falls  12,000  ft.  from  its  source,  only  100  miles  distant 
from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  to  its  junction  with  the  main 
stream.  From  this  junction  to  the  point  at  which  the 
Ucayali  empties  into  the  Maranon,  it  is  a sluggishly  flowing 
stream,  easily  navigable,  and  joined  only  by  one  important 
affluent,  the  Pachitea,  by  means  of  which,  together  with 
the  Ucayali,  a mail  service  is  maintained  between  Lima, 
Iquitos,  and  Para. 

The  Huallaga  is  of  little  economic  importance,  being 
navigable  for  steamers  only  for  a distance  of  30  miles 
above  its  mouth,  to  Laguna,  though  light  native  boats 
ascend  to  Tingo  Maria,  about  330  miles  up  the  river. 
The  remaining  stream  of  importance  in  the  montana  is 
the  Javari,  which  for  a considerable  portion  of  its  course 
forms  the  boundary  line  between  Peru  and  Brazil. 

The  character  of  the  country  does  not  admit  of  the 
formation  of  large  rivers  draining  to  the  Pacific.  The 
streams  that  flow  westward  across  the  coast  zone  at 
intervals  are  intermittent  in  character,  their  beds  being 
dry  or  nearly  so  for  a great  part  of  the  year,  and  subject 
to  periodical  floods.  Except  the  Santa  and  the  Rimac, 
not  one  is  in  constant  flow  ; and  none  is  navigable. 
The  greatest  in  volume  is  the  Huards,  which  flows  from 
Lake  Conococha,  13,000  ft.  above  sea-level,  through  the 
long,  fertile  valley  named  the  Callejon  de  Huards,  between 
the  main  Andes  range  and  the  coastal  summits,  and 
falls  steeply  to  meet  the  Rio  Chuquicara.  The  joint 
stream  makes  an  abrupt  left  turn,  piercing  the  coastal 
cordillera  and  issuing  to  the  coast  zone  as  the  Rio  Santa, 
entering  the  Pacific  at  Santa,  250  miles  from  its  source. 
The  next  stream  of  importance  is  the  Rimac,  on  which 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  AND  CLIMATE  11 


Lima,  the  capital,  is  situated  ; and  other  coastal  streams 
are  the  Pisco  or  Chunchanga,  lea,  Grande,  Yauca,  Ocona, 
Tambo,  Ilo,  Mages,  and  Vitor. 

Lakes. — Including  Lake  Titicaca,  the  largest  fresh- 
water lake  of  South  America,  the  lake  system  of  Peru  is 
of  importance,  as  Titicaca  forms  a means  of  communica- 
tion with  Bolivia,  to  which  it  in  part  belongs.  Its 
greatest  length  is  130  miles,  average  breadth  44  miles  ; 
and  its  altitude  about  12,200  ft.,  though  its  present  level 
is  considerably  lower  than  formerly.  A steamer  service 
connects  Puno  on  the  Peruvian  coast  with  La  Paz  in 
Bolivia.  The  Peruvian  plateau  contains  a number  of 
other  lakes,  small  in  size,  but  noteworthy  as  the  sources 
of  some  of  the  rivers.  The  Ucayali  rises  in  Lake  Chin- 
chaycocha,  the  Huards  in  Lake  Conococha  ; other  upland 
lakes  are  Parinacocha,  Chinacocha,  Huascarcocha,  Cabal- 
lococha,  and  Huachacocha — Cocha,  in  the  Quichua  tongue, 
signifying  “ lake.” 

Climate  and  Health. — In  considering  the  climate  of 
Peru  as  healthy,  which  it  undoubtedly  is,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  scourge  of  yellow  fever  is  by  no 
means  eliminated  from  the  country.  This  disease 
flourishes  throughout  all  the  coastal  area,  where  another 
drawback  is  the  great  mortality  among  children,  who 
perish  under  the  “ seven  days’  sickness,”  a form  of  con- 
vulsions to  which  infants  are  subject,  always  with  fatal 
results.  Dysentery  also  affects  the  coastal  area,  while 
in  the  montaha  typhoid  and  enteric,  as  well  as  malaria, 
are  prevalent.  In  the  mountains,  the  soroche,  or  moun- 
tain sickness,  attacks  new-comers,  but  never  with  fatal 
results.  With  the  exception  of  this  last,  and  of  the 


12 


PERU 


“ seven  days’  sickness,”  the  avoidance  of  disease  is 
mainly  a matter  of  sanitary  precautions  and  care  with 
regard  to  food  and  drink.  Yellow  fever,  except  in  the 
extreme  north  of  the  country,  is  gradually  being  elimin- 
ated, as  in  Brazil,  though  Peru  has  not  yet  attained  the 
standard  reached  in  Rio  and  other  Brazilian  centres. 

The  temperature  in  Peru  is  relatively  low,  thanks  to 
the  Humboldt  current  on  the  west  and  the  intervention 
of  the  Andes  summits  in  the  east.  Lima,  at  lat.  12°  S., 
has  an  average  and  fairly  constant  temperature  of  60°  ; 
and  Cerro  de  Pasco,  higher  in  altitude,  averages  40°. 
Really  tropical  heat,  however,  is  experienced  in  the 
closed  valleys  of  the  sierras,  and  in  the  montana  district 
the  steamy  discomfort  of  marshy  land  is  added  to 
equatorial  temperature. 


CHAPTER  II 


NATURAL  HISTORY 

The  Flora  of  Peru  is  extremely  varied.  This  is  due, 
in  part,  to  the  numerous  species  imported  from  Europe 
and  elsewhere,  and  naturalised  in  the  country ; but  still 
more  to  the  enormous  variation  of  soil  and  climate  due 
to  the  range  above  sea-level.  The  most  important  and 
characteristic  of  the  indigenous  products  are  maize, 
potatoes,  rubber,  cotton,  cacao,  coca,  cinchona,  and 
sarsaparilla.  Probably  the  best  way  of  describing  the 
flora  is  to  proceed  from  the  coast  to  the  Montana  or 
forest  of  the  interior,  noting  the  various  belts  of  vegetation 
encountered. 

The  Coast  Region  is,  generally  speaking,  treeless, 
save  for  the  algarrobas  ( mesquite ) of  Piura,  and  the  trees 
artificially  introduced  in  or  near  towns,  such  as  the 
Australian  eucalyptus.  A great  proportion  of  the  coast 
area  consists  of  sandy  deserts  absolutely  devoid  of  plant 
life,  even  of  cacti.  These  barren  tracts  are  crossed  by 
fertile  river  valleys,  which  produce  sugar,  cotton,  rice, 
tobacco,  cocoa.  The  olive  ( Olea  Europaea)  and  the 
castor-oil  bean  flourish  in  Arequipa.  Mulberry  trees 
have  been  introduced  for  silkworm  culture.  Many  kinds 
of  fruit  are  grown,  including  grapes,  oranges,  melons, 
bananas,  pomegranates,  alligator  pears  ( paltas ),  and 
chirimoyas.  The  ramie  (China  grass)  and  alfalfa,  or 
lucerne,  are  grown  ; and  vegetable  crops,  such  as  beans, 
peas,  lentils,  and  sweet  potatoes.  The  nopal,  or  prickly 

13 


14 


PERU 


pear  cactus,  the  habitat  of  the  cochineal  insect,  is  also 
found.  On  the  foothills  grass  appears  in  the  winter 
season  of  mists,  and  also  the  quishuar  ( Buddleia  incana), 
a tree  used  for  firewood  and  building. 

The  Temperate  Zone,  between  about  6,000  and 
11,500  ft.  above  sea-level,  contains  the  potato,  the  aji  or 
pepper,  and  various  cereals — maize,  wheat,  barley, 
alfalfa,  sorghum,  and  quinua.  The  splendid  development 
of  the  maize  and  potato  is  due  to  the  careful  native 
cultivation  for  centuries  before  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards.  Maize  is  used  not  only  for  food,  but  in  the 
preparation  of  the  drink  called  chicha  ; the  large  pods 
of  the  aji  are  eaten  both  green  and  dried  ; quinua  is  an 
indigenous  grain,  growing  freely  in  thin  soil  at  high 
altitudes,  and  very  nutritious.  The  trees  and  shrubs 
include  the  quishuar,  willow,  mountain  ash,  eucalyptus, 
roble  (a  stunted  oak),  with  hawthorn,  acacia,  elder, 
datura,  rhatanjq  and  ivy.  Cacao  is  largely  grown  in  the 
department  of  Cuzco,  and  coffee  in  Puno,  Junin,  and 
elsewhere.  The  airampo  cactus  occurs,  and  also  the 
maguey,  which  gives  a fibre  used  for  making  ropes  and 
sacks.  The  common  flowers  and  fruits  familiar  in 
Europe  occur  in  profusion  ; and  the  traveller  in  the 
fertile  valleys  of  this  zone  is  often  reminded  of  the  flora 
of  Devonshire  or  of  Switzerland. 

The  High  Plateaux  ( paramos ) and  the  slopes  over 
11,500  ft.  produce  a very  scanty  vegetation,  which  is 
put  by  the  Indian  to  the  fullest  use.  Trees  no  longer 
grow.  The  high,  coarse  grass  ( ichu ) provides  him  with 
thatch,  fodder,  and  fuel ; from  the  lake  edges  he  forms 
his  rafts  ( balsas ) ; and  he  finds  another  valuable  fuel  in 


In  the  Forest  of  Chanchamayo 


I 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


15 


the  woody  fungoid  yareta  ( Azorella  umbellifera).  Higher 
still,  a few  alpine  plants  and  lichens  lead  to  bare  rock, 
and  finally  to  perpetual  snow. 

The  inter-Andine  region  contains  the  great  river  valleys 
leading  to  the  Amazon  ; and  the  vegetation  is,  according 
to  elevation,  alpine,  temperate,  sub-tropical,  and  tropical. 

The  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes  descends  into  a new 
climate,  with  abundant  rain,  rich,  deep  soil,  and  tropical 
heat.  The  Forest  Region,  which  covers  about  two- 
thirds  of  Peru,  has  all  the  luxuriant  vegetation  which  is 
associated  with  the  name  of  the  Amazon — huge  timber, 
thick  undergrowth,  lianas,  and  tropical  ferns.  It  includes 
“ almost  every  tree  or  plant  known  in  the  botany  of 
South  America,”  and  it  has  been  calculated  that  one 
square  league  contains  some  3,000,000  different  species. 
An  account  of  a pleasure  trip  from  Lima  to  the  Ucayali 
mentions,  as  noticeably  prominent,  broom,  orchids, 
begonias,  calceolarias,  pampas  grass,  durantas,  solonacias, 
wild  cotton,  and  species  of  scarlet  runners  and  brambles  ; 
at  places  the  ground  was  covered  with  arum  lilies. 

Among  the  most  important  products  are  : (1)  Timber 
trees  ( e.g .,  ebony,  mahogany  ( caoba ),  cedar,  hardwood  or 
ironwood,  walnut,  and  various  dyewoods  ; (2)  medicinal 
plants  (e.g.,  cinchona,  coca,  sarsaparilla,  vanilla) ; (3) 
tagua  or  vegetable  ivory  (exported  for  button-making)  ; 
(4)  resinous  and  gum-exuding  trees,  including  the  rubber 
Hevea  brasiliensis  and  Castilloa  elastica ; (5)  fibrous 

plants  ; (6)  food-plants  (e.g.,  the  papaya  (Carica  papaya) 
the  large  fruit  of  which  is  eaten  raw,  or  boiled  as  a vege- 
table, or  preserved  ; (7)  fruits  ; (8)  palms,  ferns,  etc. 
The  best  rubber  (jebe)  is  found  in  the  lowest  portion  of 


16 


PERU 


Loreto,  under  300  ft.  above  sea-level ; it  grows  to  an 
average  height  of  70-75  ft.  ; the  lower  grades  grow  above 
this  elevation. 

Agriculture  is  only  beginning  in  this  vast  region.  The 
chief  products  at  present  are  rubber  and  coca  ; but  there 
is  a certain  cultivation,  which  admits  of  almost  unlimited 
increase,  of  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  cocoa,  tobacco,  with 
bananas  and  other  fruits.  Transport  is  one  great 
difficulty,  though  nature  has  provided  a system  of 
trunk-lines  in  the  series  of  great  navigable  rivers. 

In  the  Fauna,  as  in  the  flora,  there  is  a marked  differ- 
ence in  the  coast  zone,  the  high  uplands,  and  the  eastern 
Montana. 

In  the  Coast  Region,  the  animals,  except  those  intro- 
duced by  man,  are  few  and  scarce  ; fish  and  bird-life,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  abundant.  The  immense  deposits  of 
guano  on  the  islands  of  the  coast  may  serve  to  indicate 
the  enormous  number  of  large  sea-birds  ( alcatraces , 
gaviotas,  etc.).  Fish  abound  both  in  the  sea  and  the 
rivers  ; the  chief  sea-fishing  grounds  are  off  the  Lobos 
Islands,  where  skate,  sole,  plaice,  haddock,  cod,  flounder, 
smelt,  mackerel,  and  sardines  are  caught.  The  local 
names  include  the  corbina  (6-10  lb.),  morena  (3  ft.  long), 
peje-aguja  or  needle-fish  (2-t  ft.  long),  anchoveta,  peje- 
blanco,  bonita,  cabrilla,  castaneta,  and  tiboron.  Seals 
frequent  the  coast  in  large  numbers  ; lobsters,  prawns, 
and  shrimps  of  great  size  are  caught.  The  camaron,  or 
large  fresh-water  prawn,  is  esteemed  a great  delicacy. 
Lizards  and  scorpions  occur  in  the  hot  deserts,  and  taran- 
tulas in  the  valleys  of  the  coast.  The  sea-cow  {manatee), 
7 ft.  in  length,  comes  up  the  rivers  of  the  Montana. 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


17 


In  the  Sierra  occur  the  fauna  most  characteristic  of 
Peru.  The  four  members  of  the  Andean  wool-bearing 
family  deserve  first  mention  : the  Guanaco,  the  Vicuna, 
the  Llama,  and  the  Alpaca.  Of  these,  the  Guanaco  or 
Huanaco  ( Auchenia  or  Lama  huanacus ) is  the  largest. 
It  has  never  been  domesticated,  but  is  an  important 
source  of  food  to  Indian  hunters.  It  roams  the  upland 
plateaux  in  herds  of  500  to  800.  The  second  largest,  also 
wild,  is  the  Vicuna  (A.  vicunia).  This  animal  moves  in 
flocks  of  one  male  and  six  to  fifteen  females  ; it  is  growing 
scarce,  and  is  hunted  mainly  for  its  wool,  which  is  finer 
than  that  of  the  alpaca,  though  the  yield  is  smaller.  The 
fleece  is  light  brown,  paler  on  the  under  part  of  the  body. 
The  llama  and  the  alpaca  have  long  been  domesticated, 
and  never  occur  now  in  a wild  state.  The  llama  (A. 
glama),  which  is  smaller  than  the  guanaco,  stands  some 
3 ft.  high  at  the  shoulders,  with  a long  neck.  It  is  bred 
in  the  Titicaca  region,  mainly  for  its  wool,  though  it  is 
also  useful  as  a pack-animal,  carrying  loads  up  to  75  lb. 
The  fleece  is  usually  white,  occasionally  spotted,  and 
more  rarely  a uniform  brown  or  black  ; it  is  coarser  than 
that  of  the  alpaca.  It  is  perhaps  descended  from  the 
guanaco,  though  some  naturalists  believe  it  to  be  a dis- 
tinct species.  The  alpaca  or  paco  (A . paco ),  the  smallest 
of  the  four,  has  a long  fleece,  usually  black  ; the  fibre, 
strong  and  lustrous,  is  used  for  making  blankets  {ponchos). 
It  is  shorn  every  two  years,  giving  a yield  of  6 to  9 lb. 
None  of  these  animals  have  horns  ; they  depend  for  pro- 
tection partly  on  speed,  partly  on  their  faculty  of  “ spit- 
ting ” — the  accurately-aimed  projection  of  a mass  of 
peculiarly  unpleasant  saliva.  The  diminishing  number 


18 


PERU 


of  these  animals  has  rendered  necessary  measures  of 
Government  protection. 

The  rodents  include  rats  and  mice,  the  viscacha,  the 
chinchilla,  and  the  cui.  The  viscacha  ( Lagostomus 
trichodactylus),  or  Peruvian  hare,  is  a squirrel  of  the 
Chinchillidae  family.  It  lives  in  deep  burrows  in  colonies 
of  twenty  to  thirty  ; it  has  long,  soft  fur,  known  in  com- 
merce as  “ bastard  chinchilla.”  The  chinchilla  (Ch. 
laniger)  is  smaller  ; the  fur — blue-grey  at  root,  white  in 
middle,  and  dark  grey  at  the  tips — is  used  in  Europe  for 
muffs  and  furs,  and  in  Peru  for  making  cloth  fabrics. 
The  Indians  esteem  the  flesh  for  food.  The  cui  is  a 
guinea-pig,  long  domesticated,  and  used  for  food.  A 
small  species  of  deer  is  found  in  the  uplands. 

Fish  are  found  in  Lake  Titicaca.  The  bird  life  of  the 
region  includes  flamingoes,  the  white  alcamarine,  par- 
tridges, wild  fowl  of  the  duck  and  goose  species,  and  the 
great  condor  of  the  Andes. 

There  are  great  numbers  of  horses,  donkeys,  cattle,  and 
sheep,  but  these  are  all  of  foreign  origin  ; they  are, 
generally  speaking,  small  but  hardy. 

The  Montana  presents  an  abundant  fauna  of  a totally 
different  type,  many  members  of  which  are  dangerous  or 
noxious.  Enock  states  that  “ nearly  15,000  species  have 
been  recently  collected,  about  8,000  being  new.”  We 
may  mention  the  powerful  puma  or  cougar  and  the 
jaguar,  both  of  the  cat  tribe  ; the  armadillo  ; the  tapir 
or  wild  pig  ; the  ant-eater  ; and  the  peccary  or  tagassu, 
another  species  of  pig.  Many  species  of  snakes  are 
found,  including  the  boa-constrictor.  Alligators  and 
turtles  frequent  the  rivers.  The  trees  are  alive  with 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


19 


birds  (many,  like  the  parrots,  of  brilliant  plumage)  and 
also  with  monkeys.  There  are  numerous  butterflies, 
some  “ as  large  as  thrushes,”  of  which  the  owl  butterfly 
and  the  gorgeous  blue  Morphos  may  be  mentioned  ; the 
beetles,  mosquitos,  and  flies  of  various  sorts  are 
innumerable. 


CHAPTER  III 


HISTORY 

Early  History. — There  is  no  doubt  that,  in  pre- 
Spanish  times,  the  portion  of  Western  South  America, 
which  is  now  known  as  Peru,  was  far  more  thickly  popu- 
lated than  it  is  at  present.  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  and 
other  early  writers  assign  to  the  country  a population  of 
from  8,000,000  to  12,000,000  ; and  even  after  the  con- 
quest of  the  country  by  Pizarro  and  his  associates,  in  the 
course  of  which  many  massacres  were  perpetrated  among 
the  natives,  the  population  was  estimated  at  8,000,000. 
During  this  period  there  were  three  distinct  civilisations, 
of  which  a definite  (though  only  oral)  record  remains. 
These  concerned  two  distinct  races,  the  Yuncas  of  the 
western  lowlands,  and  the  Aymara-Quichua  race  of  the 
Andes  tableland. 

The  name  “ Yunca,”  in  the  Quichua  language,  means 
merely  “ the  hot  lowlands,”  and  it  was  applied  in  error 
to  this  people,  whose  true  name  has  been  lost.  Their 
language,  known  as  Mochica,  has  been  preserved  in  a 
grammar  compiled  by  a certain  Carrera,  a native  of  the 
country,  and  was  printed  in  1644.  It  is  by  means  of 
this  grammar  that  the  Yuncas  are  known  to  have  been 
a separate  race. 

The  capital  of  the  Yunca  or  Chimu  kingdom  was  Chan 
Chan,  a city  of  considerable  extent,  which  was  captured 
and  destroyed  by  the  tenth  Inca,  Yupanqui.  The  city 
had  a north  to  south  length  of  over  14  miles  and  a 

20 


HISTORY 


21 


breadth  of  over  5 miles  ; and  the  massive  character  of 
its  remains  is  proof  of  the  power  and  wealth  of  this 
people,  whose  territory  extended  for  nearly  700  miles 
along  the  coast,  and  who  were  a cultured  race  when  the 
Incas  were  only  beginning  to  rise  from  barbarism.  The 
monuments  left  by  this  race  prove  a high  state  of 
civilisation,  but  of  an  order  different  from  any  other  in 
the  southern  continent. 

The  name  “ Aymara  ” was  also  applied  in  error  like 
that  of  “Yunca.”  The  original  name  of  this  people 
was  “ Collas,”  the  Aymar£s  being  a colony  of  settlers 
transplanted  under  Inca  rule.  Their  civilisation,  devel- 
oped in  a period  anterior  to  that  of  the  Incas,  centred 
round  Lake  Titicaca,  where  still  remain  the  most  stupen- 
dous monuments  to  be  found  in  the  New  World  as  testi- 
mony to  the  genius  of  this  nearly  forgotten  race.  The 
immense  architectural  remains  of  Tiahuanaco,  consisting 
of  blocks  of  stone  weighing  from  10  to  150  tons,  are 
situated  on  what  is  at  the  present  time  a bleak  plateau, 
miles  distant  from  and  hundreds  of  feet  higher  than  the 
quarries  from  which  the  stone  was  hewn.  In  the  islands 
of  Lake  Titicaca,  and  along  its  shores,  are  found  Aymara 
(or  rather  Colla)  structures  which  testify  to  the  presence 
of  a highly  cultured,  powerful  race. 

These  two  races,  which  almost  certainly  had  sub- 
jugated and  replaced  earlier  civilisations  of  the  Andean 
area,  were,  in  turn,  conquered  by  the  Inca  race,  and, 
under  the  system  of  the  Inca  empire,  were  so  broken  up, 
that  by  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest  they  had 
become  Inca  in  spirit.  The  Inca  regime,  according  to 
Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  a descendant  of  the  royal  race, 

3— (23471 


22 


PERU 


began  with  Inca  Manco  Capac  in  a.d.  1021,  and  numbered 
thirteen  sovereigns,  including  the  unfortunate  Atahuallpa, 
murdered  by  Pizarro. 

The  Inca  capital,  Cuzco,  was  the  centre  of  an  empire 
which  extended,  at  the  height  of  its  power,  northward 
to  Quito,  westward  to  the  Pacific  coast,  east  to  Antisuyu, 
and  southward  to  the  river  Maule  in  Chile.  The  form  of 
government  was  a benevolent  despotism,  and  the  empire 
had  reached  its  zenith,  under  the  Inca  Huayna  Capac, 
just  prior  to  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards.  At  the  time 
Pizarro  entered  the  country,  civil  war  between  two  rival 
claimants  for  the  throne  had  weakened  the  nation. 

The  Conquest. — The  Spanish  conquest  of  the  country 
forms  one  of  the  great  romances  of  history.  How,  before 
the  existence  of  such  a country  as  Peru  had  been  definitely 
ascertained,  three  men  sat  down  in  Panama  and  divided 
the  spoils  of  the  rich  empire  between  them,  is  a story 
that  has  been  told  times  out  of  number.  The  three 
signatories  to  the  historic  document  which  apportioned 
out  the  undiscovered  empire  were  Hernando  de  Luque, 
vicar  of  Panama,  who  provided  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  funds  for  the  expedition  ; Diego  de  Almagro,  who 
was  charged  with  the  business  of  equipping  and  victualling 
the  expedition  ; and  Francisco  Pizarro,  who  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  vessels  in  which  the  adventurers  set 
forth  on  24th  September,  1524.  This  first  attempt  at 
discovering  the  country  which  was  rumoured  to  exist 
somewhere  to  the  south  was  unsuccessful,  as  were  several 
later  ones,  and  it  was  not  till  1531  that  Pizarro  landed 
at  Tumbes. 

From  intercourse  with  the  outposts  of  Inca  settlement 


General  View  of  Cuzco 


HISTORY 


23 


along  the  Pacific  coast,  Pizarro,  Almagro,  and  then- 
followers  gained  some  idea  of  the  vast  extent  and  wealth 
of  the  Inca  empire.  They  heard  of  it  as  an  exactly- 
governed  prosperous  dominion,  with  about  12,000,000 
subjects.  The  hills  were  terraced  and  irrigated  to  permit 
of  cultivation  ; the  land  was  fertilised  with  guanos  and 
other  manures  ; and  all  cultivable  territory  was  measured 
and  divided  into  three  parts  : one  for  the  priesthood  of 
the  sun,  one  for  the  upkeep  of  the  royal  fine,  and  the 
remaining  part  for  the  support  of  the  people  themselves. 
Taxation  was  enforced  in  the  form  of  cultivation  of  the 
lands  of  the  Inca  and  of  the  sun,  and  other  services  to  the 
State,  and  the  lives  of  the  people  were  so  regulated,  that 
even  the  smallest  details  of  domestic  life  were  under  State 
supervision.  Poverty  and  destitution  were  unknown  ; 
the  laws  provided  for  the  care  of  the  old  and  infirm  ; 
grain  was  stored  in  each  village  according  to  its  require- 
ments ; and  each  man  was  capable  of  making  his  own 
clothing.  There  was  no  coinage,  nor  any  system  of 
purchase.  Gold  and  silver,  used  in  enormous  quantities 
for  purposes  of  decoration,  were  the  exclusive  property 
of  the  Inca.  No  man  of  the  lower  orders  owned  any- 
thing, even  he  himself  being  the  property  of  the  State. 
The  records  of  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  and  others  prove 
that  various  arts  and  sciences  reached  a high  state  of 
perfection  under  the  Incas ; arithmetic,  geometry, 
geography,  astronomy,  music,  and  medicine  were  among 
their  finer  accomplishments  ; while  abundant  evidence 
is  still  in  existence  to  prove  their  skill  in  mining  and 
metal  working,  building,  weaving,  and  the  manufacture 
of  pottery.  Such  of  their  buildings  as  the  Spaniards  were 


24 


PERU 


unable  to  destroy  remain  yet,  scattered  throughout  the 
coastal  zone  and  the  Andine  plateau,  most  noteworthy 
being  the  great  fortress  of  Sacsahuaman.  Little  remains 
of  their  famous  roads,  said  to  rival  the  highways  of  old 
Rome  in  their  construction  ; one  of  these  royal  highways 
led  from  Cuzco  to  Quito,  a distance  of  over  1,200  miles — 
and  the  carriers  organised  and  maintained  by  the  Inca 
government  traversed  that  distance  in  twenty  days. 
Another  of  these  roads  led  from  Cuzco  throughout  the 
coast  zone  of  the  empire,  and  suspension  bridges  of 
200  yards’  span  were  employed  to  maintain  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  way.  Fully  developed  Socialism,  or 
absolute  tyranny,  was  here  in  operation,  and  the  singu- 
larly unambitious  character  of  the  people  made  it  a 
success. 

Seven  years  of  privation,  toil,  and  disappointment,  and 
nearly  150  lives,  went  to  the  actual  discovery  of  the  Inca 
empire  by  the  Spaniards  ; and  then  in  January,  1531, 
Pizarro  set  out  with  a force  of  180  men,  including  his 
four  brothers,  for  the  real  conquest  of  Peru.  The  Island 
of  Puna  and  the  settlement  of  Tumbes  were  first  sub- 
jugated, and  by  means  of  fresh  reinforcements  from 
Panama  a series  of  conquests  of  the  settlements  along 
the  coast  was  made.  After  a year’s  work  along  the 
coast,  Pizarro  learned  that  the  settlements  he  was 
reducing  were  but  the  fringe  of  a huge  and  powerful 
State  ; he  had  now  gained  news  of  the  existence  of 
Atahuallpa,  the  Inca  emperor,  and  also  of  the  great 
central  settlements  of  Cajamarca  and  Cuzco. 

Pizarro  laid  the  foundations  of  the  settlement  of  San 
Miguel,  intending  that  it  should  serve  him  as  a base  ; 


HISTORY 


25 


and  in  September,  1532,  set  out  on  his  great  march 
toward  the  interior,  in  search  of  Atahuallpa.  News  of 
the  emperor  was  first  obtained  at  the  Inca  town  of 
Caxas,  whence  one  Hernando  de  Soto,  who  led  an 
advance  guard,  returned  with  messengers  from  the 
emperor,  bearing  presents  and  assurances  of  his  peaceful 
intentions.  Thence  Pizarro  led  his  force  along  the  Inca 
coast  road,  following  the  track  to  Cajamarca,  where  the 
Inca  was  reported  to  be.  Arriving  at  the  foot  of  the 
cordillera,  the  Spaniards  learned  of  the  civil  war  between 
Atahuallpa  and  his  brother  Huascar.  Cajamarca  was 
entered  on  the  15th  November,  1532,  and  the  Spaniards 
occupied  a large  plaza  or  square  in  the  centre  of  the 
town  ; a message  announcing  their  arrival  was  sent  to 
Atahuallpa,  and  Hernando  Pizarro,  Francisco’s  brother, 
visited  the  Inca’s  camp  outside  the  city  and  brought 
back  a message  to  the  effect  that  Atahuallpa  would  visit 
the  Spaniards  on  the  following  day. 

Attended  by  crowds  of  his  unarmed  followers,  the  Inca 
arrived  after  sunset.  At  Pizarro’s  instigation,  Friar 
Vicente  Valverde,  the  priest  of  the  expedition,  addressed 
the  Inca  through  an  interpreter,  bidding  him  render 
tribute  to  the  Emperor,  the  Pope,  and  the  God  of  the 
Spaniards.  The  friar  placed  a Bible  in  the  Inca’s  hands, 
and  Atahuallpa,  after  glancing  at  the  pages  of  the  book, 
threw  it  carelessly  aside. 

At  this  the  friar,  a fanatic  of  the  worst  type,  called 
on  the  Spaniards  to  avenge  the  insult  to  their  faith. 
Pizarro  and  four  others,  rushing  forward,  seized  the  Inca, 
while  the  remainder  of  the  Spaniards  began  an  indis- 
criminate massacre  of  the  Indians  in  the  Plaza.  Without 


26 


PERU 


a single  casualty  on  the  Spanish  side,  2,000  Peruvians, 
unarmed  and  defenceless,  were  slaughtered,  Atahuallpa 
remaining  a prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards.  As 
ransom,  the  captive  emperor  offered  to  fill  a room,  22  ft. 
long  by  17  ft.  wide,  with  gold  to  a point  as  high  as  a 
man  could  reach,  as  well  as  to  fill  the  room  twice  with 
silver.  The  offer  was  accepted,  and  the  Inca  sent  mes- 
sengers to  Cuzco  for  the  required  stores  of  metal.  The 
total  value  of  the  gold  and  silver,  thus  infamously 
obtained,  was  three  and  a half  million  pounds  sterling  ; 
but,  although  the  ransom  was  paid,  Atahuallpa  was  not 
released.  Dispatching  his  brother  Hernando  on  a recon- 
noitring expedition  through  the  country,  Pizarro  got  rid 
of  Hernando  de  Soto,  another  cavalier  of  the  expedition, 
who  might  have  proved  too  scrupulous,  on  a similar  pre- 
text, and  arraigned  Atahuallpa,  accusing  him  of  insti- 
gating the  formation  of  a force  in  the  north  of  the 
country  to  overwhelm  the  Spaniards.  Although  twelve 
cavaliers  of  the  party,  impelled  by  a sense  of  honour, 
protested  against  the  proposed  murder,  Atahuallpa 
was  condemned  to  be  burnt  alive,  and  was  ultimately 
strangled  in  the  plaza  of  Cajamarca  on  the  3rd  of  May, 
1533.  No  blacker  act  of  treachery  is  to  be  found  in  the 
history  of  the  conquest  of  the  New  World.  The  out- 
raged Peruvians  rose  against  their  invaders  after  this, 
and  for  a time  the  existence  of  the  Spaniards  was  imperil- 
led ; but  by  the  15th  November,  1533,  they  had  over- 
come their  opponents  sufficiently  to  enter  Cuzco,  where 
Pizarro  invested  the  Inca  Manco  as  Atahuallpa’s 
successor — but  merely  as  a figurehead. 

Proceeding  to  Spain  with  the  great  treasure  acquired 


HISTORY 


27 


by  the  plunderers,  Hernando  Pizarro  brought  back  with 
him  the  decree  by  which  Francisco  Pizarro  was  granted 
dominion  over  270  leagues  of  coast  line,  while  Almagro 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  what  is  now  the 
Republic  of  Chile  ; but  the  royal  decree  was  so  loosely 
worded,  that  the  ownership  of  Cuzco,  which  was  near 
the  boundary  line  between  the  two  new  colonies,  was 
left  in  doubt. 

Early  in  1536,  the  Inca  Manco  rose  against  the 
Spaniards,  and  so  fierce  became  the  struggle  that  rein- 
forcements were  summoned  from  outside  the  country. 
The  return  of  Almagro  from  his  new  country  of  Chile 
disheartened  Manco  and  his  followers  ; the  last  Inca 
retired  to  safety  among  the  recesses  of  the  mountains, 
and  the  Spanish  conquest  of  Peru  was  now  complete. 

Civil  War. — Almagro,  claiming  Cuzco  as  part  of  his 
territory,  took  possession  of  the  city  in  April,  1537, 
capturing  Hernando  and  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  whom  he 
subsequently  released.  This  dispute  ended  in  a pitched 
battle  between  the  forces  of  Almagro  and  those  of  the 
Marquis  Francisco  Pizarro,  in  which  Almagro ’s  force  was 
utterly  defeated,  and  he  himself  was  captured.  He  was 
finally  strangled  in  prison  by  order  of  the  merciless 
Hernando  Pizarro. 

After  Almagro’s  overthrow  and  death,  the  Marquis 
Francisco  set  about  the  settlement  of  the  country, 
established  order,  and  developed  the  mining  industry. 
But  the  “ men  of  Chile,”  ruined  followers  of  Almagro’s 
son,  plotted  against  the  murderer  of  Atahuallpa  and — 
as  they  conceived — the  originator  of  their  misfortunes. 
On  the  26th  June,  1541,  a band  of  the  malcontents,  under 


28 


PERU 


Juan  de  Herrada  or  Rada,  entered  the  house  of  the 
marquis  in  Lima,  overcame  the  slight  defence  of  Pizarro’s 
followers,  and  slew  him  after  a fierce  struggle,  in  which 
he  accounted  for  two  of  his  assailants. 

The  young  Almagro’s  followers  disputed  the  possession 
of  the  country  with  Vaca  de  Castro,  the  governor  sent 
from  Spain  to  succeed  Pizarro  ; but  in  a battle  fought 
near  Jauja,  the  Chilean  faction  was  defeated,  and  Almagro 
and  the  murderers  of  Pizarro  were  executed.  In  1543, 
Blasco  Nunez  Vela,  first  viceroy  of  Peru,  arrived,  and 
simultaneously  the  Royal  Audience  of  Peru  was  estab- 
lished. Gonzalo  Pizarro  disputed  the  governorship  of 
the  country  with  the  new  viceroy,  and  in  a battle  which 
ensued  two  of  the  judges  of  the  Royal  Audience  espoused 
opposite  sides.  Blasco  Nunez  was  killed  in  the  battle, 
and  Gonzalo  Pizarro  became  governor  of  the  country 
in  1546. 

His  rule  was  terminated  by  the  ecclesiastic,  Pedro  de 
la  Gasca,  who  was  sent  from  Spain  on  it  being  rumoured 
that  Gonzalo  was  attempting  to  set  up  a separate  king- 
dom. After  various  battles,  Gasca  overthrew  the  last 
of  the  Pizarros,  and  executed  him  together  with  the 
veteran  fighter  Carbajal  and  a number  of  his  adherents. 
Contemporary  accounts  of  the  character  of  Gasca  are 
conflicting,  but  he  certainly  brought  peace  to  Peru  and 
kept  the  country  in  order  for  the  period  of  his  stay. 

After  the  departure  of  Gasca,  and  the  arrival  of  the 
second  viceroy,  Antonio  de  Mendoza,  civil  war  again 
broke  out.  The  third  viceroy,  Andres  Hurtado  de 
Mendoza,  Marquis  of  Canete,  came  to  the  country  in 
1555,  and  ruled  Peru  with  a heavy  hand,  expelling  a 


HISTORY 


29 


number  of  Spaniards  whom  he  found  of  more  trouble 
than  use  to  the  colony. 

Colonial  Period. — Toward  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century  came  the  viceroy  Toledo,  under  whom  the 
descendants  of  the  Inca  race  were  systematically 
oppressed,  and  the  young  Inca  Tupac  Amaru  driven 
to  a semblance  of  rebellion  as  a pretext  for  his  execution. 
The  system  under  which  the  Spanish  colonists  had  been 
allowed  to  employ  the  natives,  little  better  than  slavery, 
had  gone  far  towards  reducing  their  numbers  ; but  under 
the  government  of  Toledo,  the  destruction  of  the  race 
outstripped  even  that  of  the  Pizarros  themselves. 

In  all,  forty-four  viceroys  governed  the  country  during 
the  Spanish  period  ; Lima  became  the  Spanish  capital 
of  South  America,  and  the  Peruvian  viceroyalty  and 
Royal  Audience  formed  the  supreme  court  of  the  con- 
tinent. A million  ducats  went  annually  to  Spain  from 
the  mines  of  Peru  ; quinine,  ipecacuanha,  chocolate,  and 
potatoes  were  some  of  the  gifts  that  the  new  continent 
gave  to  the  old  ; while,  in  return,  Peru  was  enriched  by 
the  introduction  of  wheat,  oats,  alfalfa,  olives,  grapes, 
and  other  growths  hitherto  unknown  west  of  the  Atlantic. 
But,  apart  from  material  benefits  such  as  these,  Peru 
gained  little  from  Spain  ; the  main  object  of  the  home 
government  was  the  suppression  of  freedom  of  thought 
and  action  ; the  printing  press  was  rigidly  supervised 
and  censored  ; the  colonists  were  treated  as  children  ; 
the  Inquisition  arrived  with  its  attendant  evils,  religious 
intolerance  and  persecution,  and  priest  and  layman  alike 
united  in  oppressing  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  land. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  found  that  the  Peruvian 


30 


PERU 


Viceroyalty  had  become  too  unwieldy  for  effective  govern- 
ment of  the  whole  continent,  and  New  Granada,  com- 
prising the  present  republics  of  Colombia,  Venezuela, 
and  Ecuador,  was  constituted  a separate  government ; 
while  toward  the  end  of  the  century  the  Plate  River 
countries  were  placed  under  another  viceroyalty  at 
Buenos  Aires.  The  oppression  of  the  natives  brought 
about  a general  revolt  in  1780,  for  forced  labour — 
especially  that  in  the  mines — had  become  unendurable. 
After  various  battles,  the  rebellion  was  crushed,  and  its 
leaders,  including  Tupac  Amaru,  a descendant  of  the 
Inca  race,  were  barbarously  executed  at  Cuzco.  A few 
reforms  followed,  more  liberty  was  allowed  to  scientific 
and  literary  development,  and  even  the  printing  of  a 
newspaper  was  allowed. 

Revolt  from  Spain. — The  events  of  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  however,  revealed  to  the  Spanish  colonies  the 
weakness  of  the  Mother  Country,  and  the  general  unrest 
expressed  itself  in  Peru  by  the  destruction  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion and  all  its  appurtenances  at  Lima  in  1813.  By 
this  time  most  of  the  other  Spanish  colonies  in  South 
America  had  declared  for  independence,  but  Peru,  oldest 
and  strongest  centre  of  Spanish  authority,  remained 
loyal  to  the  last ; and  it  was  not  till  August,  1814,  that 
the  patriots  of  Cuzco  rose  in  open  revolt  against  the 
Viceroy.  General  Ramirez,  with  1,300  regular  troops, 
had  no  difficulty  in  defeating  the  insurgents,  and  a series 
of  executions  followed. 

Pezuela,  the  penultimate  viceroy  of  Peru,  who  came 
to  rule  in  Lima  in  July,  1816,  reported  to  Spain  that  the 
country  was  a hotbed  of  revolutionary  sentiment.  Early 


/ 


HISTORY 


31 


in  1817,  San  Martin,  the  hero  of  Argentina,  annihilated 
Spanish  power  in  Chile,  after  which  he  undertook,  in 
connection  with  Lord  Cochrane,  the  task  of  freeing  Peru 
from  Spain.  After  various  encounters  both  by  land  and 
sea,  Pezuela  was  deposed  from  his  position  ; disaffection 
made  itself  evident  among  the  Royalist  forces  ; and  the 
independence  of  the  country  was  proclaimed  on  the 
28th  July,  1821,  San  Martin  being  appointed  Protector. 
He  resigned  his  position  on  the  advent  of  Simon  Bolivar, 
having  organised  the  independent  government  of  the 
country  and  established  its  congress. 

The  first  President  of  Peru,  Jose  de  la  Riva  Aguero 
was  elected  in  February,  1823.  But  the  contest  with 
Spain  was  not  quite  ended,  for  La  Serna,  the  viceroy 
who  had  been  appointed  in  succession  to  Pezuela,  was 
established  at  Cuzco  with  a force  strong  enough  to 
defeat  the  republican  army  under  General  Santa  Cruz, 
who  gave  battle  to  the  Royalist  army  near  Lake  Titicaca. 
In  June,  Riva  Aguero  was  deposed,  and  in  1824  Bolivar 
became  dictator.  With  an  army  composed  of  Colombian 
and  Peruvian  troops,  and  in  conjunction  with  General 
La  Sucre,  he  defeated  the  Royalist  army  under  General 
Canterac  at  Junin,  and  marched  on  Cuzco,  La  Serna’s 
stronghold  and  the  last  centre  of  Spanish  authority  in 
South  America.  The  last  battle  against  Spain  was 
fought  at  Ayacucho.  Bolivar’s  army  totalled  about 
6,000  men,  while  La  Serna  had  a force  of  9,000  and 
more  ; but,  in  spite  of  their  inferiority  in  numbers,  the 
patriots  were  completely  victorious  ; the  whole  of  the 
Royalist  army  was  either  captured  or  slain,  and  Bolivar 
was  hailed  throughout  Peru  as  the  saviour  of  the  country. 


32 


PERU 


Bolivia  was  established  as  a separate  republic,  and  Peru, 
with  nearly  the  same  area  as  belongs  to  it  to-day,  entered 
on  its  republican  career. 

Independence. — The  list  of  rulers  of  Peru,  printed  at 
the  end  of  this  chapter,  gives  some  indication  of  the 
almost  continuous  political  upheaval  which  followed  the 
declaration  of  independence  in  1821.  The  next  quarter 
of  a century  presents  a welter  of  warring  ambitions  ; 
every  general  who  could  command  the  services  of  a 
regiment  aspired  to  become  head  of  the  State,  and  each, 
as  he  attained  supremacy,  was  attacked  by  his  jealous 
rivals.  The  fall  of  the  vast  Spanish  empire  in  South 
America  was  so  sudden  and  complete,  that  time  was 
needed  before  its  diverse  elements  could  group  them- 
selves afresh  and  acquire  national  traditions  and  feeling. 
Consequently,  the  internal  dissensions  of  Peru  were 
complicated  by  interference  from,  and  wars  with,  her 
neighbours.  Gradually,  however,  the  separate  entities 
of  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Ecuador  emerged.. 

There  was  war  with  Chile  in  1836-7,  and  again  in  1838  ; 
a series  of  revolutions  followed,  and  meanwhile  the  pro- 
prietorship of  the  rich  nitrate  deposits  in  the  south  of  the 
country  gradually  became  a vexed  question  between  Peru 
and  Chile.  Bolivia,  which  then  extended  to  the  Pacific 
coast,  also  took  part  in  this  dispute. 

The  first  period  of  peace  and  progress  was  reached  in 
two  presidencies  of  Ramon  Castilla,  1845-51  and  1855-62. 
Castilla  was  not  only  a strong  and  capable,  but  a con- 
stitutional, ruler.  He  refunded,  with  accrued  interest, 
the  foreign  debt  incurred  in  the  wars  of  independence, 
and  promoted  in  every  legitimate  way  the  development 


HISTORY 


33 


of  the  country.  Under  his  successors,  the  old  evils 
sprang  up  with  renewed  force — military  ambitions, 
corruption,  extravagance,  nepotism. 

A little  naval  war  between  Peru  and  Spain  in  1864-66, 
prevented  serious  complications  over  republican  boun- 
daries, and  Chile  shared  the  burden  of  this  war  with  Peru. 
Peru  suffered  severely  from  a bombardment  of  Callao 
by  the  Spanish  squadron,  2nd  May,  1866 ; but  the 
Spanish  ships  were  also  so  much  damaged  by  the  fire 
from  the  Peruvian  batteries,  that  further  hostilities  were 
abandoned.  The  war  was  followed  by  a revolution 
which  placed  President  Balta  in  office  ; his  rule  is  note- 
worthy for  great  projects  of  material  progress,  in  port- 
works,  railways,  parks,  public  buildings,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Montana  region.  Great  revenues  were  now 
pouring  into  the  treasury  from  the  guano  and  nitrate 
deposits,  and  Castilla’s  financial  reforms  had  given  Peru 
a good  name  in  the  money  markets  of  Europe.  The 
great  Central  and  Southern  railways  were  magnificent  in 
conception,  though  possibly  built  too  soon  ; but  they 
were  built  entirely  on  foreign  loans,  the  repayment  of 
which  crippled  the  development  of  Peru.  (See  chapter 
on  National  Finance.) 

Balta  was  eventually  murdered,  and  Manuel  Pardo, 
who  succeeded  him,  set  about  the  organisation  of  schemes 
of  retrenchment  and  economy  rendered  necessary  by 
Balta’s  reckless  expenditure. 

War  with  Chile. — Meanwhile,  Chilean  capital  and 
enterprise  were  busy  developing  the  nitrate  areas  of  the 
Atacama  desert,  and  the  Peruvian  Government  (working 
in  concert  with  Bolivia)  attempted  to  impose  a tax  on  the 


34 


PERU 


Atacama  products,  in  order  that  the  Peruvian  nitrate 
industry  in  Tarapacd  might  benefit.  Chile  seized  the 
port  of  Antofagasta,  without  any  formal  declaration  of 
war,  and  the  Bolivian  Government  thereupon  declared 
war  against  Chile.  The  Peruvian  minister  at  Santiago 
del  Chile  suggested  that  Peru  should  mediate  between  the 
two  countries,  but  this  offer  was  declined.  Since  Peru 
would  not  forego  her  treaty  with  Bolivia  and  declare 
neutrality,  Chile  declared  war  against  Peru  in  April,  1879. 

At  the  outset,  public  opinion  declared  that  Chile  could 
not  possibly  survive  a war  with  Peru,  especially  with  the 
weight  of  Bolivia  on  the  Peruvian  side  ; but  the  event 
proved  the  contrary.  For  years,  Chilean  administrators 
had  been  strengthening  their  navy  and  making  prepara- 
tion for  such  a war,  while  the  Peruvian  Government  had 
pursued  a policy  which  involved  numerous  revolutions 
and  little  beside.  The  issue  of  the  war  depended  on  the 
control  of  the  Pacific  ; the  combatant  who  was  supreme 
at  sea  could  blockade  or  bombard  the  ports  of  the  enemy 
and — since  government,  commerce,  and  civilisation  were 
centred  on  the  coastal  region — must  eventually  be  vic- 
torious. In  the  first  engagement  the  Chileans  lost  the 
Esmeralda,  but  the  Peruvian  Independencia  ran  on 
sunken  rocks  and  was  wrecked.  Then  for  four  months  the 
Peruvian  ironclad  Huascar,  under  the  brilliant  command 
of  Grau,  held  Chile  in  check  and  terrorised  the  coast ; 
but  with  its  capture  off  the  coast  of  Antofagasta  on 
8th  October,  1879,  after  a desperate  and  historic  battle 
against  overwhelming  odds,  the  Chilean  navy  became 
supreme.  The  way  was  clear  for  her  invading  forces  ; and 
the  Peruvian  army  in  Tarapacd  was  isolated.  The 


HISTORY 


35 


outstanding  events  in  the  campaign  that  followed  were : 
the  landing  of  the  Chileans  at  Pisagua,  on  2nd  November, 
1879,  under  protection  of  heavy  fire  from  the  guns  of  the 
fleet  ; the  failure  of  the  Peruvian  attack  on  the  Chilean 
position  at  San  Francisco,  16th  November  ; the  retreat 
of  the  Peruvians  first  to  Tarapacd,  where  a Chilean  attack 
was  repulsed  with  considerable  loss,  27th  November,  and 
then  across  the  desert  to  Arica  ; the  defeat  of  the  allied 
Peruvian  and  Bolivian  forces  at  Tacna,  26th  May,  1880  ; 
and  the  brilliant  Chilean  capture  of  the  Morro  Hill  and 
the  forts  at  Arica  by  a night  surprise,  5th  June. 

Meantime,  the  blockade  of  Callao  had  begun,  and 
lasted  from  April  to  December,  and  the  coast  ports  and 
valleys  were  ruthlessly  ravaged.  It  would  have  been 
the  wiser  policy  for  Peru  to  acknowledge  her  defeat  and 
submit ; but  national  pride  forbade  this.  The  conse- 
quence was  a Chilean  invasion  in  force  in  January,  1881, 
directed  on  Lima.  Peru  made  a desperate  but  unavailing 
resistance  at  Chorrillos  and  Miraflores,  14th  and  15th 
January,  and  Lima  was  entered  on  17th  January. 
Mainly  under  C&ceres,  Peru  still  maintained  a guerilla 
warfare  ; Chile  meantime  occupied  the  capital  for  two 
years  and  nine  months,  confiscated  the  Customs  revenues, 
and  made  barbarous  reprisals  on  property,  such  as  the 
spoliation  of  the  National  Library.  No  systematic 
attempt  was  made  to  conquer  the  interior,  though 
Arequipa  was  captured,  July,  1883. 

The  coastal  zone  of  Peru  was  dependent  on  outside 
supplies  for  the  means  of  subsistence,  and  with  a navy 
superior  in  every  way,  the  Chileans  had  little  difficulty 
in  reducing  the  majority  of  the  coast  towns. 


36 


PERU 


By  October,  1883,  when  the  humiliating  Treaty  of 
Ancon  was  signed,  the  Chilean  forces  had  devastated 
Peru  and  dictated  the  election  of  General  Iglesias  to  the 
Peruvian  presidency.  The  treaty,  ratified  in  May,  1884, 
provided  for  the  cession  of  the  nitrate  province  of 
Tarapacfi  to  Chile,  and  a ten  years’  Chilean  tenancy  of 
the  province  of  Tacna  with  Arica,  on  condition  that 
at  the  end  of  the  ten  years  a plebiscite  should  be  taken 
to  decide  to  which  country  the  province  should  belong 
permanently ; that  country  should  then  pay  10,000,000 
dollars  to  the  other — a policy  of  “ heads  I win,  tails  you 
lose,”  for  Chile.  The  plebiscite  has  never  been  taken, 
but  Tacna,  under  an  agreement  arrived  at  in  1912 
between  the  two  countries,  is  now  definitely  a Chilean 
province,  and  Bolivia  no  longer  possesses  a seaboard. 

Peru  To-day. — One  of  the  later  revolutions,  that  of 
1895,  involved  three  days’  furious  fighting  in  the  streets 
of  Lima,  with  a death  roll  of  over  3,000  ; but  Pierola, 
who  came  to  the  presidency  after  this,  brought  about 
many  improvements  in  the  country,  a notable  change  being 
the  standardisation  of  the  currency,  the  sol,  equivalent 
to  two  English  shillings,  being  introduced  in  1899. 

A reform  of  the  electoral  law  was  passed  in  1897,  by 
which  a committee  of  nine  was  appointed  to  examine 
electoral  returns ; and  another  law  of  1897  legalised 
marriages  performed  by  foreign  diplomatic  ministers, 
consuls,  and  ministers  of  dissenting  churches,  provided 
they  were  entered  in  the  civil  registers  ; in  1903  further 
facilities  were  given  for  the  marriage  of  non-Catholics. 

Since  1895,  revolutionary  movements  in  Peru  have 
been  inconsiderable,  and,  on  the  whole,  the  last  eighteen 


HISTORY 


37 


years  in  the  history  of  the  republic  have  been  character- 
ised by  steady  progress  in  many  ways.  The  only  out- 
break has  been  that  of  4th  February,  1914,  when  Presi- 
dent Billinghurst  was  deposed  and  the  Premier  (General 
Varela)  was  shot. 

Education,  the  improvement  of  sanitation  in  the  towns, 
the  amelioration  of  the  lot  of  the  Indian  population,  the 
development  and  extension  of  railways,  and  the  opening 
up  of  the  vast  mineral  resources  of  the  country  by  means 
of  judiciously  attracted  foreign  capital,  are  some  of  the 
subjects  to  which  the  government  has  devoted  particular 
attention. 

The  chief  drawbacks  to  the  development  of  the  country 
at  the  present  time  are  sparse  population,  together  with 
a cessation  of  immigration,  and  the  lack  of  local  govern- 
ment in  the  montana  region,  out  of  which  has  arisen  the 
devil’s  tragedy  of  the  Putumayo,  and  other  less  known 
but  glaring  offences  against  the  elemental  laws  of  human 
intercourse.  These  things  are  possible  in  the  hinterlands 
of  Peru,  because  the  hand  of  the  government  cannot  as 
yet  effectively  control  its  huge  territories.  This,  how- 
ever, is  a fault  that  is  being  gradually  overcome,  for  the 
pressure  of  public  opinion  has,  in  a measure,  forced  the 
Government  to  bestir  itself ; but  there  is  much  to  be 
done  yet  before  the  montana  of  Peru  can  claim  to  rank 
as  a civilised  country,  even  in  the  portions  that  are  under 
control  of  white  or  half-breed  population. 

Rulers  of  Peru  from  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  28th  July,  1821 
1821  (Aug.).  Jose  de  San  Martin  (Protector),  resigned,  1822. 
1823  (Feb. -Nov.).  Jose  de  la  Riva  Aguero  (first  President), 

deposed. 

4— (3247) 


38 


PERU 


1824  (Feb.).  Simon  Bolivar  (Dictator),  left  the  country,  Sept., 
1826. 


1827  (Aug.).  Jose  de  Lamar  y Cortazar,  deposed,  June,  1829. 
1829  (Aug.).  Agustin  Gamarra  (Provis.  Pres.). 

1833  (Dec.).  Luis  Jose  Orbegoso. 

1835  (Feb.).  Felipe  Santiago  de  Salaverry  (Supreme  Chief), 
executed,  Feb.,  1836 

1836.  Andres  Santa  Cruz  (Protector  of  the  Confederation  of 
North  Peru,  South  Peru,  and  Bolivia),  retired  to  Europe. 
1839.  Agustin  Gamarra  (Provis.  Pres.,  then  Constitutional 
President  and  “Restorer”),  killed  at  the  battle  of  Yngavi, 
Nov.,  1841. 

1841.  Manuel  Menendez  (Acting  President),  deposed,  July,  1842. 

1843.  Manuel  Ignacio  Vivanco  (Supreme  Director),  retired  to 
Chile,  July,  1844. 

1844.  Manuel  Menendez  (restored  as  Acting  President). 

1845.  Ramon  Castilla  (for  six  years). 

1851.  Jose  Rufino  Echenique,  fled,  Jan.,  1855. 

1855  (July).  Ramon  Castilla,  resigned,  Oct.,  1862. 

1862.  Miguel  San  Roman,  died,  1863. 

1863.  Juan  Antonio  Pezet,  resigned,  Nov.,  1865. 

1865.  Mariano  Ignacio  Prado  (Supreme  Chief),  retired,  Jan., 
1868. 

1868.  Pedro  Diez  Canseco  (Acting  President). 

1868  (Aug.).  Jose  Balta,  murdered,  1872. 

1872.  Manuel  Pardo  (first  civilian  President). 

1876.  Mariano  Ignacio  Prado,  fled  to  Europe,  Dec.,  1879. 

1879  (Dec.).  Nicolas  de  Pierola  (Supreme  Chief),  resigned, 
Nov.,  1881. 

1881  (Mar.).  Francisco  Garcia  Calderon  (Provis.  Chief  of 
Executive),  exiled  to  Chile. 

,,  (Nov.).  Lizardo  Montero. 

1883.  Francisco  Garcia  Calderon. 

,,  (Oct.).  Miguel  Iglesias  (Provis.),  resigned,  Nov.,  1885. 

1886.  Andres  Avelino  Caceres. 

1890.  Remijio  Morales  Bermudez. 

1894.  Andres  Avelino  Caceres,  left  the  country,  March,  1895. 

1895  (Mar.).  Manuel  Candamo  (Provis.). 

,,  (Sept.).  Nicolas  de  Pierola. 

1899.  Eduardo  de  Romana. 

1903.  Manuel  Candamo  ; died,  May,  1904. 

1904  (Sept.).  Jose  Pardo. 

1908.  Augusto  B.  Leguia. 

1912.  Guillermo  E.  Billinghurst,  deposed  Feb.,  1914. 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  INCA  AND  PRE-INCA  RUINS 

The  traveller  in  Peru  will  meet  with  abundant  traces  of 
the  earlier  civilisations  of  the  country — both  pre-Inca 
and  Inca — in  the  shape  of  temples,  palaces,  houses, 
fortresses,  aqueducts,  reservoirs,  pyramids,  and  ceme- 
teries. It  may  be  both  interesting  and  useful  to  him  to 
know  where  the  most  important  of  those  are  to  be  seen, 
of  what  they  consist,  and  how  they  are  related  to  the 
history  of  the  country.  There  are,  however,  many 
problems  of  Peruvian  archaeology  as  yet  unsolved,  and 
the  scientific  study  of  the  subject  is  comparatively  recent. 
The  views  given  are,  to  some  extent,  provisional,  and  may 
be  modified  in  detail  by  further  investigation. 

Many  of  the  early  buildings  termed  “ Inca  remains  ” 
are  not  such  in  reality.  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
the  comparatively  short  period  of  the  true  Inca  rule,  from 
an  immensely  ancient  period  of  culture  preceding  it. 
The  Inca  period  proper  commenced  about  300  years 
before  the  arrival  of  Pizarro  in  Peru,  and  is  divided  into 
the  reigns  of  the  twelve  (or  possibly  thirteen)  rulers 
named  by  the  early  chroniclers.  Approximately,  the 
period  was  from  1230  to  1530  a.d.  But  it  is  clear  that 
the  civilisation  found  by  the  Spaniards,  could  only  have 
been  developed  in  a far  vaster  number  of  generations. 
Not  only  had  a remarkable  skill  been  attained  in  pottery, 
weaving,  architecture,  and  metal-working,  together  with 
some  proficiency  in  mathematics  and  astronomy ; but 

39 


40 


PERU 


such  less  obvious  points  as  the  evolution  of  maize  and 
potatoes  from  wild  plants,  and  of  the  domesticated  llama 
and  alpaca  from  wild  ancestors,  presuppose  the  lapse  of 
countless  generations.  Some  of  the  early  remains  of  this 
pre-Inca  period  may  be  coeval  with  the  early  work  of 
Egypt  or  Assyria  ; the  later  portion  of  the  period  is 
probably  that  of  the  ninety  kings  mentioned  by  the 
chronicler  Montesinos  as  preceding  the  reigns  of  the 
twelve  Incas. 

Within  this  great  pre-Inca  period  two  main  culture- 
schools  existed,  one  of  the  highland  plateaux  and  the 
other  of  the  coast.  On  the  coast,  two  subsidiary  centres 
of  craftmanship  are  found  : at  Trujillo  and  Nasca.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  nucleus  of  the  Peruvian  empire 
was  at  Tiahuanaco  (now  in  Bolivia),  with  frontier  for- 
tresses at  Cuzco  and  Ollantaitambo,  directed  against  the 
wild  tribes  of  the  upper  Montana.  The  seat  of  empire 
was  later  transferred  to  Cuzco,  and  it  was  probably  from 
this  centre  that  the  rulers  proceeded  to  conquer  the  coast 
settlements,  meeting  with  occasional  reprisals.  Probably 
the  highland  and  the  coast  civilisations  were  evolved 
independently  for  a long  period,  before  the  conquest 
of  the  latter  region  brought  them  into  contact  and 
inter-action. 

Taking  together  the  building  remains  of  the  Inca  and 
pre-Inca  periods,  we  may  distinguish  (a)  megalithic  and 
cyclopean  work,  as  at  Tiahuanaco  ; ( b ) work  of  unhewn 
stone,  as  in  the  innumerable  hill-fortresses  ; and  (c)  work 
of  smaller  hewn  and  squared  stone,  as  in  the  later  walls  at 
Cuzco.  Chronology  and  sequence  is  peculiarly  difficult  to 
ascertain,  owing  to  the  facts  that  the  early  Peruvians  had 


By  permission  of 


Evangelical  Union  of  South  America 


A Quichua  Indian  of  Pern — a descendant  of  the  Inca  race. 
The  background  shows  old  Inca  masonry 


THE  INCA  AND  PRE-INCA  RUINS 


41 


no  alphabet,  and  that  carved  ornament  is  comparatively 
rare.  The  stone  remains  are  chiefly  in  the  highlands  ; 
while  those  of  the  coast,  where  stone  was  compara- 
tively rare,  were  largely  built  of  sun-dried  bricks 
{adobes),  which,  though  easily  destructible  by  the  hand 
of  man,  will  last  otherwise  for  amazingly  long  periods  in 
the  extraordinarily  dry,  rainless  climate. 

Some  of  the  most  important  sites  are  described  below. 
It  may  be  added  that,  while  accounts  of  particular  sites 
and  explorations  have  been  more  recently  written  by 
other  investigators,  the  most  comprehensive  work  on  the 
subject  is  that  of  the  American  E.  G.  Squier,  issued  in 
1877  : Peru  : Incidents  of  Travel  and  Exploration  in  the 
Land  of  the  Incas. 1 

Coast  Remains. — The  most  accessible  of  the  sites  con- 
taining ruins  of  early  buildings  are  those  near  Trujillo 
and  Lima  : a description  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these 
is  given  in  some  detail  below.  But  nearly  every  valley 
has  many  ruins,  e.g.,  the  valleys  of  Cafiete  (“  palacio  del 
Rey  Inca  ”),  Huarcu,  Chillon,  Barranca  (fortresses  pos- 
sibly marking  the  southern  limit  of  Chimu  rule),  Santa, 
Moche,  Nepena  (Huaca  Tambo),  Casma  (Calaveras, 
Quisque,  Alpacote),  and  Pisco. 

Particularly  characteristic  of  the  coast  population  are 
the  truncated  pyramids  known  as  huacas.  In  some  cases 
these  are  solid  masses  of  adobe  brick,  built  round  a central 
core,  and,  perhaps,  raised  in  honour  of  some  deity  ; in 
others,  they  contained  numerous  painted  chambers  for 
the  reception  of  the  dead.  They  are  generally  of  great 
extent  {e.g.,  that  of  El  Obispo,  near  Trujillo,  covers  an 


1 Macmillan. 


42 


PERU 


area  of  about  8 acres  and  rises  to  a height  of  150  ft.)* 
Many  have  been  attacked  and  more  or  less  spoilt  by 
treasure  hunters.  It  would  appear  that  they  were 
originally  ascended  by  zigzag  staircases,  were  covered 
with  stucco,  and  painted  in  bright  colours.  In  many 
instances  they  have  been  coated  with  adobes,  possibly  by 
the  Inca  conquerors,  who  filled  up  the  chambers,  made 
a straight  ascent,  and  erected  stone  temples  to  the  sun 
on  the  top. 

The  district  north  and  south  of  the  present  city  of 
Trujillo  contains  very  extensive  remains  of  the  old  city 
or  settlement  of  the  Y unca  population.  They  are  known 
as  Grand  Chimu  or  Chan  Chan,  and  cover  an  area  of 
perhaps  12  by  6 miles.  The  city  appears  to  have  been 
built  in  self-contained  sections  or  wards,  each  perhaps 
the  residence  of  one  clan  ( ayllu ).  Each  ward  has  only 
one  entrance  ; it  contained  courtyards,  store-chambers, 
reservoirs,  workshops,  and  sometimes  a huaca ; the 
rooms  often  had  no  door,  and  appear  to  have  been 
approached  along  the  top  of  the  walls.  Interesting 
ornamentation  has  been  found.  In  some  cases,  the  walls 
were  plastered  and  covered  with  paintings  ; in  others, 
the  adobes  were  arranged  in  chess-board  pattern,  giving 
a honeycombed  appearance,  or,  again,  in  diamond-shaped 
rows  ; in  a few  cases  the  stucco  is  cut  in  relief  in  bold 
but  rude  ornamental  patterns,  raised  about  an  inch  from 
the  surface.  These  were  painted  in  bright  colours, 
producing  a very  rich,  barbaric  effect. 

About  14  miles  from  Lima,  in  a side  valley  running 
down  to  the  valley  of  the  Rimac,  is  the  ruined  city  of 
Cajamarquilla,  a maze  of  complicated  structures  in  three 


THE  INCA  AND  PRE-INCA  RUINS 


43 


groups  ; there  are  no  windows,  and  among  several 
peculiar  features  may  be  noted  the  low  doorways  of 
diverse  curious  form  (horseshoe,  coffin-shaped,  etc.),  and 
the  curious  store-chambers  in  the  floors,  shaped  like 
boxes  or  jars. 

The  ruins  of  Pachacamac  are,  perhaps,  the  most 
famous.  They  stand  near  the  sea,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  Lurin,  about  30  miles  south  of  Lima.  The 
buildings  are  partly  of  stone,  partly  of  adobe  ; some  have 
been  overthrown  by  earthquake  and  others  lie  buried  in 
drifted  sand.  The  city  contained  the  shrine  of  the  god 
Pachacamac,  the  Creator,  “ he  who  animates  the  uni- 
verse.” This  shrine,  originally  adorned  with  immense 
wealth  of  gold  and  silver,  was  desecrated  and  despoiled 
by  Hernandes  Pizarro.  There  are  two  principal  ruins  : 
(1)  “ El  Castillo,”  the  Temple  of  Pachacamac,  on  a head- 
land ; four -walled  terraces  enclose  the  shrine  at  the  top  ; 
the  walls  of  the  latter  were  originally  stuccoed  and 
painted,  and  perhaps  had  pilasters  ; some  have  windows, 
and  others  niches.  This,  in  the  main,  represents  the 
worship  of  the  earlier  coast  population.  (2)  The  “ Mama- 
cuna,”  1£  miles  away,  on  low  ground  near  a lake.  The 
materials  are  similar,  but  the  niches,  windows,  and  door- 
ways are  of  the  usual  Inca  type.  These  ruins  represent 
a Temple  of  the  Sun  and  a Convent  of  Virgins,  and  date 
from  the  Inca  period.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  the 
inhabitants  of  such  convents  either  became  wives  of  the 
ruling  Inca  or  chief  nobles,  or  were  offered  in  sacrifice  to 
the  sun,  or  were  dedicated  to  perpetual  virginity.  One 
very  remarkable  feature  in  this  group  of  ruins  is  the 
existence  of  a genuine  segmental  arch.  The  arch  is  very 


44 


PERU 


rare  on  the  coast  and  unknown  in  the  highlands  ; the 
failure  of  the  early  Peruvians,  in  spite  of  their  bold  and 
vast  buildings,  to  evolve  the  arch  may  be  ranked  with 
their  failure  to  invent  an  alphabet  or  system  of  writing. 
The  arch  would  have  been  of  immense  service,  not  only 
in  their  buildings,  but  in  bridging  ravines  for  purposes 
of  irrigation  and  road-making ; for  lack  of  it,  their 
canals  had  to  be  carried  immense  distances,  if  it  were 
necessary  to  cross  a valley. 

The  ground  surrounding  these  ruins  is  a vast  cemetery. 
From  it,  as  from  Chan  Chan,  and  from  many  huacas, 
immense  quantities  of  mummies  (buried  in  Peru  in  a 
sitting  posture),  pottery,  textiles,  implements,  and 
ornaments  have  been  obtained. 

Highland  Remains. — The  most  important  of  the  ruins 
in  the  highlands  or  Andean  plateaux  may  be  visited  from 
two  centres — Puno  and  Cuzco — both  now  accessible  by 
the  Southern  Railway.  A few  isolated,  but  less  important, 
sites  are  mentioned  below. 

Excursions  from  Puno. — The  town  of  Puno,  on  Lake 
Titicaca,  is  close  to  the  boundary  line  between  Peru  and 
Bolivia.  Tiahuanaco  itself  and  several  adjacent  sites  lie 
just  across  the  border,  in  Bolivia.  The  boundary,  how- 
ever, is  entirely  artificial ; the  whole  of  the  Titicaca  basin 
is  essentially  one  in  character  and  history  ; and  the  sites 
are  so  important  as  forming  the  cradle  of  a great 
civilisation,  that  they  cannot  be  omitted  here. 

Tiahuanaco.  The  ruins  lie  near  the  road  to  La  Paz, 
about  half  a mile  to  the  south  of  the  village  of  Tiahuanaco. 
They  have  been  surveyed  by  Stiibel  and  Uhle,  and  more 
recent  excavations  were  made  by  the  Crequi-Montfort 


THE  INCA  AND  PRE-INCA  RUINS 


45 


expedition.  There  are  three  rectangular  enclosures  of 
differing  size,  the  largest  marked  by  great  monoliths, 
which  were  formerly  connected  by  a wall,  and  entered  by 
a stairway  of  large  monoliths.  The  small  enclosure 
opposite  the  stairway  has  grotesque  heads  carved  in 
relief  on  the  columns.  Within  the  large  enclosure  is  the 
“ most  famous  ruin  in  America,”  a great  gateway  cut 
from  a single  block  of  stone,  10  ft.  by  12  ft.  6 in.,  and 
1|  ft.  in  thickness  ; the  doorway  is  4 ft.  6 in.  by  2 ft.  9 in. 
On  one  face  a frieze  of  alternate  sun-faces  and  meanders 
ending  in  condor-heads  runs  from  end  to  end  above  the 
doorway.  Over  this  is  carved,  in  relief,  a central  figure, 
shown  full-face,  flanked  by  three  rows  of  smaller  figures 
in  profile.  On  the  other  face,  the  doorway  is  flanked 
on  each  side  by  a doorlike  niche,  and  the  place  of  the 
frieze  is  occupied  by  two  smaller  niches  on  each  side. 
The  figures,  bold  and  grotesque  in  design,  have  several 
noticeable  features  ; the  heads  are  disproportionately 
large  and  the  legs  truncated  ; the  square-shaped  head  is 
surmounted  by  a head-dress  wfith  numerous  rays  ter- 
minating in  circles  and  puma-heads  ; a ceremonial  staff, 
single  or  double  headed,  is  held  in  the  hands,  and  the 
smaller  profile  figures  are  seen  to  have  wings  and  tails, 
and  those  in  the  middle  rowr  have  bird  masks.  All  over 
are  placed  conventional  ornaments  of  fish,  serpent,  condor, 
and  puma  heads.  These  reliefs  appear  to  have  been 
painted.  The  central  figure  is  supposed  to  represent 
Viracocha,  the  supreme  deity ; possibly  the  smaller 
figures  represent  the  three  clans,  worshipping  in  cere- 
monial and  priestly  dress.  At  some  time  unknown,  the 
monolith  has  been  broken,  perhaps  in  being  moved  from 


46 


PERU 


its  earlier  position  ; but  the  two  portions  have  been 
recently  replaced  in  relation. 

Other  monolithic  gateways,  whole  and  broken,  exist 
on  the  site,  and  some  colossal  statues  have  been  found. 
In  one  spot  are  large  numbers  of  worked  stones,  large  and 
small,  cut  like  puzzle  blocks,  with  grooves  and  projections, 
and  drilled  with  holes.  This  has  been  done  with  great 
precision,  so  that  block  could  be  fitted  to  block  and 
fastened  with  metal  rods  and  clamps.  While  much 
remains  in  situ,  the  place  has  been  used  as  a quarry  by 
builders  of  the  neighbourhood  ( e.g .,  for  the  village  of 
Tiahuanaco,  and  for  the  cathedral,  houses,  and  street 
paving  of  La  Paz). 

One  of  the  unsolved  mysteries  of  the  place  is  the 
reason  for  the  selection  of  the  site  as  a sacred  city  or 
shrine.  Tiahuanaco  stands  nearly  13,000  ft.  above  the 
sea,  in  a district  not  only  cold,  but  barren.  It  can  hardly 
have  been  the  site  of  a great  city,  for  a large  population 
could  only  be  maintained  there  by  transporting  food 
from  a distance  ; and  there  are  no  signs  of  any  extensive 
ancient  city. 

Titicaca  and  Coati  Islands.  Off  the  peninsula  at  the 
south  of  Lake  Titicaca,  which  extends  almost  across  the 
lake,  lie  two  islands — Titicaca  and  Coati — sacred  respec- 
tively to  the  sun  and  to  the  moon.  The  larger,  lying  to 
the  north  of  this  peninsula,  is  Titicaca,  where  the  founders 
of  the  Inca  dynasty — Manco  Capac,  and  his  sister-wife, 
Mama  Ocllo,  children  of  the  Sun — descended  from  heaven, 
and  whence  they  started  north  to  conquer  and  to  civilise. 
High  above  the  landing-place  at  Titicaca  stands  a plat- 
form backed  by  two  chambers,  separated  by  a narrow 


THE  INCA  AND  PRE-INCA  RUINS 


47 


passage.  It  was  probably  used  in  the  initiatory  rites 
necessary  before  the  pilgrims  to  the  sacred  rocks  were 
allowed  to  proceed  thither. 

Of  the  numerous  interesting  remains  on  the  island,  the 
following  may  be  particularised  : ( 1 ) The  Pila  or  Fountain 
of  the  Incas,  a rectangular  basin,  40  ft.  by  10  ft.  by  5 ft., 
enclosed  on  three  sides  by  walls  of  carefully-squared 
stone.  It  is  half-way  down  a valley  arranged  in  regular 
terraces,  supported  by  niched  walls,  and  planted  with 
fragrant  vegetation.  The  water,  uniform  in  flow,  enters 
the  basin  by  four  jets,  and  thence  flows  from  terrace  to 
terrace,  to  the  lake. 

(2)  The  Palace  of  the  Inca  stands  on  a beautiful  ter- 
raced site  facing  the  island  of  Coati.  The  ground  floor 
chambers  are  covered  by  a primitive  vaulting  formed  of 
overlapping  stones  ; the  upper  storey,  approached  from 
the  exterior,  was  probably  roofed  with  the  elaborate 
thatching  usual  in  Peru.  The  front  here  consisted  of  a 
oblong  open-air  chamber,  flanked  by  two  small  rooms. 
The  walls  were  covered  with  a yellow  stucco,  and  the 
recesses  of  the  doorways  and  niches  coloured  red. 

(3)  The  so-called  Temple  of  the  Sun,  standing  on  a 
high  ridge  or  isthmus,  and  commanding  fine  views  on 
both  sides ; the  high  walls  enclose  levelled  terraces, 
perhaps  originally  gardens. 

(4)  The  most  sacred  spot  on  the  island  lay  near  its 
northern  extremity.  This  is  the  Rock  of  Manco  Capac, 
a mass  of  red  sandstone,  some  25  ft.  high,  on  the  crest 
of  a ridge.  Here  (according  to  the  Inca  tradition)  the 
children  of  the  Sun  first  alighted  upon  earth.  In  front 
is  a wide  platform  surrounded  by  walls.  The  sacred  soil 


48 


PERU 


might  only  be  trodden  by  special  priests,  no  pilgrim 
being  allowed  to  approach  within  200  paces.  The  sum- 
mit was  plated  with  gold  and  silver,  and  covered,  save 
on  high  festivals,  with  a rich  mantle  of  the  finest  colours 
and  materials.  In  the  natural  hollows  of  this  rock  the 
various  offerings  of  the  worshippers  were  deposited. 

Much  of  the  building  on  Titicaca  island  is  assigned 
traditionally  to  the  reign  of  Tupac  Yupanqui,  grand- 
father of  Atahuallpa  (i.e.,  between  1425  and  1470  a.d.). 

Coati  Island.  The  most  important  building  on  this 
island  was  the  Acllahuasi,  or  Convent  of  the  Virgins  of 
the  Sun.  It  is  in  good  preservation  and  has  several 
remarkable  features,  such  as  doorways  and  niches  with 
“ stepped  ” gables,  recessed  four  or  five  stages  deep  ; 
gable-ends  fronting  on  the  courtyard  ; and  niches,  some- 
times pierced  for  window  openings,  of  a peculiar  shape. 
Two  large  chambers  in  the  middle  of  the  long  side  of  the 
courtyard  are  conjectured  by  Squier  to  have  been  the 
shrines  of  the  Sun  and  the  Moon.  The  building  stands 
high  in  the  heart  of  a terraced  amphitheatre  facing  north. 
Similar  convents  existed  at  Cuzco  and  Pachacamac. 

Lake  Umayo.  This  lake  is  about  15  miles  north-west 
of  Puno.  It  contains  an  island  in  the  middle  and  a 
peninsula  at  the  eastern  end,  called  Sillustani.  Here  are 
to  be  seen  several  sun-circles  of  large,  erect,  uncut  stones, 
enclosed  within  a platform  of  stepped  and  grooved  cut 
stones.  There  are  also  a very  large  number  of  well- 
built  circular  towers,  called  “ chullpas.”  These,  though 
sometimes  considered  to  be  granaries,  were  probably 
mausolea  for  chieftains  or  their  families.  The  more 
elaborate  are  faced  with  large  hewn  stones,  domed,  and 


By  permission  of 


Evangelical  Union  of  South  America 


Street  of  the  Incas  in  the  old  city  of  Cuzco 


THE  INCA  AND  PRE-INCA  RUINS 


49 


with  a projecting  cornice,  and  the  diameter  gradually 
increases  from  base  to  cornice.  Two  small  entrances 
were  made,  one  in  the  domidal  covering  and  one  at  the 
base.  Internal  arrangements  vary  greatly.  In  other 
parts  of  the  country  the  chullpas  are  often  square. 

At  Hatuncolla,  6 miles  to  the  east  of  the  lake,  are  two 
sandstone  pillars,  7 ft.  by  2 ft.,  and  10  in.  thick,  elabo- 
rately carved  with  geometrical  and  wavy  patterns,  and 
with  figures  of  serpents,  lizards,  and  frogs. 

At  Cacha,  on  the  line  to  Cuzco,  about  half-way  between 
Lampa  and  Cuzco,  are  numerous  remains.  The  best 
known  formed  part  of  the  famous  Temple  of  Viracocha 
erected  in  honour  of  the  god  by  the  Inca  of  the  same 
name.  It  has  been  largely  destroyed,  partly  in  the  early 
hunt  for  treasure  and  out  of  hatred  of  heathen  super- 
stition, and  partly  in  later  times  for  the  purpose  of 
erecting  churches  and  other  buildings.  The  outer  walls 
of  hewn  stone,  have  disappeared  ; the  long  and  lofty 
ruined  wall,  40  ft.  high,  familiar  in  the  illustrations  of 
books  on  Peru,  ran  down  the  middle  of  the  building, 
from  end  to  end  ; it  has  a stone  foundation,  8 ft.  high, 
surmounted  by  adobe  bricks.  On  each  side  of  it  ran  a 
row  of  pillars,  and  the  whole  supported  an  upper  floor, 
now  entirely  vanished,  where  stood  the  sanctuary  and 
statue  of  the  god.  There  are  numerous  domestic  build- 
ings, regularly  disposed  as  in  a monastery  or  college, 
adjoining  the  temple. 

On  the  way  from  Cacha  to  Cuzco,  numerous  ruins  are 
to  be  seen  at  Quijana  ; great  Inca  quarries  near  Anda- 
huaylas  ; a fortress  or  barrier  at  Piquillacta  ; a walled 
town  at  Muyna  ; and  more  ruins  at  the  pass  of  Angostura. 


50 


PERU 


Cuzco.  The  Inca  city  of  Cuzco,  or,  at  any  rate,  the 
part  containing  its  great  public  buildings,  was  confined 
within  a long,  narrow  tongue  of  land  sloping  down  from 
the  hill  of  Sacsahuaman,  and  enclosed  by  the  two  stream- 
lets of  the  Rodadero  and  the  Huatenay.  Within  this 
area  the  lower  portion  of  the  Inca  walls  have  been  largely 
retained  by  the  Spaniards  as  foundations  for  their  own 
structures,  and  they  still  define  in  great  measure  the  streets 
and  squares  of  the  ancient  city.  The  greatest  and  most 
magnificent  building  was  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  rising 
above  the  terraced  gardens  of  the  Sun,  which  sloped  down 
to  the  artificially  widened  waters  of  the  Huatenay. 
This  is  now  the  site  of  the  Friary  of  Santo  Domingo.  To 
the  north-west  was  the  Acllahuasi  or  Palace  of  the  Virgins 
of  the  Sun,  nearly  800  ft.  by  200  ft.  ; this  is  now  occupied 
by  the  Convent  of  Santa  Catalina.  On  either  side  were 
great  palaces,  of  which  the  lower  walls  still  survive  in 
great  part ; one  of  the  finest  specimens,  380  ft.  long  and 
18  ft.  high,  faces  the  square  of  Pampa  Maroni.  The 
cathedral  occupies  the  site  of  a covered  hall ; the  domin- 
ating site  of  San  Cristobal  was  formerly  that  of  the 
palace  of  the  first  Inca,  of  which  a few  remains 
survive. 

Sacsahuaman.  Above  ancient  Cuzco  the  ground  rises 
precipitously  in  a line  with  the  two  streamlets  before 
mentioned  ; across  this  V-shaped  acropolis  run  the  three 
zigzag  lines  of  cyclopean  fortification,  so  stupendous  as 
to  strike  the  early  Spanish  chroniclers  as  worthy  to  rank 
with  the  seven  wonders  of  the  ancient  world,  and  even 
to  raise  suspicions  that  it  could  only  be  the  work  of 
enchantment.  It  is,  perhaps,  a primeval  stronghold, 


THE  INCA  AND  PRE-INCA  RUINS 


51 


older  even  than  Cuzco  itself.  The  lines  are  indeed 
wonderful.  They  ran  for  a length  of  some  1,800  ft.  ; 
they  have  an  average  height  of  27,  18,  and  14  ft.  respec- 
tively, and  were  planned  with  a parapet  and  platform  or 
terrace  behind  ; and  they  were  built  with  a succession 
of  salient  angles,  so  as  to  command  the  flanks  of  any 
attacking  force.  But  what  is  most  wonderful  is  the 
enormous  size  of  the  blocks  of  stone  employed,  and  the 
accuracy  with  which  their  irregular  angles  are  fitted 
together.  One  of  these  blocks  is  27  ft.  by  14  ft.  by  12  ft., 
and  “ stones  of  15  ft.  by  12  ft.  by  10  ft.  are  common  in 
the  outer  walls.”  There  were  many  other  structures 
near,  but  these,  being  built  of  small  hewn  stones,  were 
pulled  down  and  the  stone  used  for  later  Spanish  building 
in  the  city.  The  “ Seat  of  the  Inca,”  cut  in  the  rock, 
is  noteworthy. 

West  of  Cuzco  lies  Chinchero,  which  contains  a long 
terrace  wall,  niched  and  coped  ; in  the  neighbourhood 
are  great  sculptured  rocks,  with  a statue  of  a puma. 
The  old  road  turns  then  to  the  north,  descends  4,000  ft. 
into  the  valley  of  the  Urubamba,  and  crosses  the  river 
to  the  sheltered  fertile  valley  of  Yucay,  a favourite  resi- 
dence of  the  Incas,  with  a wonderful  series  of  terraced 
andenes  or  gardens,  each  with  its  retaining  wall.  High 
up  among  these  stood  their  Summer  Palace,  of  which  but 
scanty  ruins  survive.  The  road  down  the  valley  passes 
numerous  rock-tombs  in  precipitous  situations,  and 
circular  loopholed  towers,  finally  leading  to  the  famous 
fortified  town  of  Ollantaitambo,  the  frontier  town  of  the 
valley.  Here,  “ in  a climate  of  endless  Spring,”  are  to 
be  seen  extensive  remains  of  a very  typical  Inca  town, 


52 


PERU 


planted  at  the  foot  of  a narrow  ravine  and  backed  by 
mountains  rising  9,000  ft.  above  the  river.  The  ancient 
town  was  laid  out  in  parallel  streets  ; the  houses,  like 
monastic  dwellings,  were  arranged  in  formal  parallelo- 
grams, each  group  with  its  courtyards  ; there  was  a 
town  square  or  piazza,  a fortress,  and  a palace.  Here, 
too,  is  a pillar  supposed  to  be  an  “ intihuatana  ” or 
gnomon  of  the  sun,  used  for  the  observation  of  the 
equinox.  The  passes  were  all  fortified  and  the  river 
bridged.  The  precipitous  slopes  are  still  terraced  with 
innumerable  retaining  walls.  The  principal  fortress, 
terraced  on  lofty  walls  rising  from  the  river,  commanded 
the  narrow  passage  which  formed  the  approach  from  the 
Montana — one  of  the  four  passes  from  the  Amazon  plain 
to  the  Andine  region.  Some  of  the  megalithic  work  here 
is  probably  of  the  pre-Inca  period ; and  some  of  the 
stones  in  the  fortress  are  cut  in  slots  and  patterns 
resembling  those  of  Tiahuanaco. 

Pisac.  Another  ancient  road  from  Cuzco  leads  first 
east  and  then  north,  down  a valley ; on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Vilcomayo  (or  Urubamba)  stands  Pisac.  This 
place,  like  Ollantaitambo,  guarded  a pass  leading  from 
the  montana  ; and  at  both  ends  of  the  pass  gigantic 
fortresses  were  built.  The  remains  here  are,  perhaps, 
even  more  remarkable.  Squier  says  : “ Every  rood  of 
surface  that  can  be  terraced  and  cultivated  is  dedicated 
to  agriculture  ; every  avenue  of  ascent,  except  such  as 
the  engineers  determined  to  leave  open,  is  closed  ; every 
commanding  and  strategic  spot  is  fortified.  There  is  not 
a point  to  the  very  summit  of  the  first  peak  which  is  not 
somewhere  commanded,  or  somehow  protected  by  a maze 


Evangelical  Union  of  South  America 


Entrance  to  a Temple 


By  permission  of 


THE  INCA  AND  PRE-INCA  RUINS 


53 


of  works,  which  almost  defy  the  skill  of  the  engineer  to 
plan,  and  which  baffle  description.” 

Among  the  religious  remains  at  Pisac  is  a fine  example 
of  an  “ inti-huatana.”  A rock  has  been  levelled  at  the 
top,  giving  an  area,  roughly  circular,  18  ft.  by  16  ft.  In 
the  centre  has  been  left,  in  the  living  rock,  a cone-shaped 
pillar,  16  in.  high.  The  whole  is  surrounded  by  a wall 
of  stones,  faced  on  the  outside  and  perfectly  smooth, 
about  20  ft.  high  ; this  enclosure  is  shaped  like  a D. 
It  is  thought  that  the  short  pillar  was  surmounted  at 
the  proper  season  by  a long  gnomon  ; and  also  that  the 
apsidal  wall  at  the  end  of  the  church  of  St.  Domingo  at 
Cuzco  enclosed  originally  the  “ inti-huatana  ” of  the 
great  sun  temple  there. 

Below  Ollantaitambo,  in  the  same  valley,  are  striking 
remains  at  Macchu  Pichu  and  Rosas  Pata. 

Isolated  Sites. — Huanuco  Viejo  is  in  the  Province  of 
Huamalies,  54  miles  west  of  the  modern  town  of  Huanuco. 
The  ruins  apparently  are  those  of  a palace  and  a fortress. 
The  palace  contains  a reservoir,  a bath,  a number  of 
houses,  and  long  walls,  and  three  double  doorways  with 
niches  and  rude  carvings  ; these  doorways,  at  different 
sides  of  large  courtyards,  are  all  in  a line.  The  fortress 
is  180  ft.  by  80  ft.  ; it  has  walls  of  hewn  stone  13  ft. 
high,  with  a projecting  cornice. 

At  Huantar,  in  the  valley  of  Chavin,  near  the  Maranon, 
are  a castle,  numerous  houses,  and  a bridge  with  carved 
heads  in  the  corner  pillars.  From  the  castle  a remark- 
able carved  slab,  7 ft.  long,  has  been  removed,  and  is  now 
in  the  Exhibition  Park  at  Lima  ; other  carved  stones 
remain  in  situ. 


5— (2247) 


54 


PERU 


A few  words,  in  conclusion,  may  sum  up  the  salient 
features  of  the  highland  architecture.  The  stone  work, 
whether  cyclopean,  irregular -shaped,  or  of  regular  squared 
and  smoothed  blocks,  is  universally  marked  by  extreme 
accuracy  of  fitting  ; walls,  windows,  doorways,  niches, 
have  a marked  inward  slope  ; circular  building  is  not 
infrequent  ; the  stones  are  carefully  measured  and  pre- 
pared for  their  places,  cut  to  the  requisite  angles  or  radii  ; 
the  arch  is  unknown,  as  also  was  the  use  of  glass  (hence 
the  paucity  of  windows) ; the  buildings  were  frequently 
of  two,  or  possibly  more,  storeys.  The  external  effect 
was  severe  and  monotonous,  but  powerful ; perhaps  it 
was  frequently  relieved  by  the  use  of  stucco  and  paint. 
Internally,  the  palaces  and  temples  were  adorned  with 
thin  gold  and  silver  plates.  The  roofs  seem  to  have  been 
invariably  of  thatch,  but  this  thatching  was  of  a very 
elaborate  and  ornamental  character.  It  is  described  by 
the  early  chroniclers ; and  a specimen  survived  at 
Asangaro  till  quite  recently. 


Los  Portales,  Plaza  Mayor,  Lima 


CHAPTER  V 


DEPARTMENTS,  PROVINCES,  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF 
POPULATION 

Departments. — Peru  contains  at  present  (omitting 
Tacna)  twenty-two  independent  administrative  divisions. 
These  are  usually  known  as  departments,  but  three  are, 
strictly  speaking,  not  departments,  but  “ littoral  pro- 
vinces.” Ten  of  these  divisions  are  in  the  Coast  region, 
viz.,  the  seven  departments  of  Piura,  Lambayeque,  La 
Libertad,  Ancachs,  Lima,  lea,  and  Arequipa,  together 
with  the  three  littoral  provinces  of  Tumbes,  Callao,  and 
Moquegua.  Eight  departments  belong  to  the  Sierra 
region,  viz.,  Cajamarca,  Huanuco,  Junin,  Huancavelica, 
Ayacucho,  Apurimac,  Cuzco,  and  Puno.  The  Montana 
at  present  contains  four  departments,  viz.,  Amazonas, 
San  Martin,  Loreto,  and  Madre  de  Dios  ; but  it  will 
doubtless  be  further  subdivided  as  its  development 
proceeds.  Tacna  is  now  counted  as  part  of  Chile. 

Population. — The  estimates  of  area  and  population 
given  below  can  only  be  regarded  as  approximate.  The 
area  is  uncertain,  partly  from  the  absence  of  an  accurate 
survey,  and  partly  from  the  difficulties  attending  frontier 
delimitation.  As  to  the  first,  the  great  height  and 
extent  of  the  mountains,  plateaux,  and  forests  must 
long  render  accuracy  impossible  ; much  of  the  eastern 
part  of  Peru  is  even  still  unexplored.  As  to  the  latter, 
while  the  frontiers  with  Bolivia,  Chile,  and  Brazil  are 
now  settled,  those  with  Ecuador  and  Colombia  are  still 
in  dispute. 


55 


56 


PERU 


The  facts  concerning  the  population  are  equally  in 
doubt.  According  to  the  census  of  1876 — the  last  that 
has  been  taken — the  total  was  2,660,881,  of  which  300,000 
was  assigned,  conjecturally,  to  the  montana.  Estimates 
were  prepared  in  1896  and  1908,  and  certain  municipal 
censuses  have  been  taken  from  time  to  time. 

The  Civil  States  Registers,  ordered  on  the  promulgation 
of  the  Civil  Code  in  1852,  and  again  on  the  establishment 
of  municipal  councils  in  1873,  have  never  been  properly 
kept ; and  the  Government  recently  ascertained  “ with 
veritable  stupefaction  ” that  no  less  than  seventy-two 
municipalities  keep  no  such  registers  of  any  description. 
Till  recently,  the  Government  held  the  total  to  be  still 
under  3,000,000  ; the  London  Stock  Exchange  estimates 
it  at  4,000,000  ; and  the  figures  here  adopted  amount  to 
about  3,600,000. 1 

Of  this  total,  about  800,000  belong  to  the  Coast 
region,  2,360,000  to  the  sierra,  and  400,000  to  the 
montana. 

Omitting  Callao,  which  stands  in  an  exceptional  posi- 
tion, the  most  populous  department,  judged  by  the  pro- 
portion of  inhabitants  to  area,  is  Cajamarca  ; next  come 
Ancachs,  Lambayeque,  Lima,  Huancavelica,  and  La 
Libertad ; then  Apurimac,  J unin,  Ayacucho,  Piura, 
Tumbes ; then  Puno,  lea,  Arequipa,  Huanuco.  The 

1 The  Presidential  Message  to  Congress  on  5th  Sept.,  1913, 
while  allowing  for  “ war,  revolutions,  Indian  uprisings,  epidemics, 
and  inhuman  conduct  of  certain  disorderly  provincial  elements  ” 
(as,  e.g.,  in  the  Putumayo  region)  takes  a more  favourable  view, 
and  holds  that,  in  spite  of  all  the  uncertainties  attending  the 
calculation,  the  population  of  the  republic  at  present  approx- 
imates to  5,000,000.  This  gives  an  average  of  about  7.2  per 
sq.  mile. 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


57 


others  have  less  than  three  per  square  kilometre  (ten 
per  square  mile). 

The  constituent  elements  of  the  population  are  also 
very  uncertain  ; but  the  following  proportions  appear 
to  be  the  best  attainable  : Pure  Indians,  50  per  cent  ; 
Mestizos  ( i.e .,  those  of  mixed  white  and  Indian  descent), 
35  per  cent.  ; pure  whites,  11  per  cent.  ; negroes  (includ- 
ing Zambos,  partly  of  negro  and  partly  of  native  descent), 
2 per  cent.  ; Asiatics  (Chinese,  Japanese,  and  descendants 
of  mixed  marriages),  2 per  cent. 

The  Indian  population  of  the  uplands,  known  generically 
as  Cholos,  are  Christians  and  largely  Spanish-speaking, 
though  they  maintain  their  Quechua  and  Aymara  dialects 
among  themselves.  The  Indians  of  the  tropical  forest 
region  in  the  east,  known  generically  as  Chunchos,  are 
pagan  and  uncivilised ; they  speak  many  different 
languages  and  enjoy  no  citizen  rights. 

Omitting  Tacna,  Arica,  and  Tarata,  Peru  contains 
22  departments,  104  provinces,  and  826  districts. 

Amazonas,  a Montana  department,  has  an  estimated 
area  of  13,940  square  miles  (36,122  sq.  kiloms.),  with  a 
population  of  about  53,000,  (i.e.,  an  average  of  under 
15  per  square  kil.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Ecuador,  on  the  west  by  Cajamarca,  on  the  south  by 
La  Libertad,  and  on  the  east  and  north-east  by 
Loreto.  The  department  is  composed  of  alternate 
mountain  and  valley,  the  mountains  of  the  central 
cordillera,  intersected  by  the  deep  valleys  of  the  Maranon 
and  its  tributaries.  The  Maranon  forms  the  boundary 
between  Amazonas  and  Cajamarca  for  more  than  half 
the  west  side  of  the  department,  and  then  flows  in  a 


58 


PERU 


north-east  direction.  It  receives  on  the  left  bank  the 
river  Santiago,  which  divides  Amazonas  from  Loreto, 
and  on  the  right  bank  another  river  Santiago  and  the 
Chuchanga. 

The  capital  is  Chachapoyas,  seat  of  a bishopric,  and 
the  industrial  centre  of  the  department. 

The  provinces  are — 

(1)  Bongora  (cap.  Jumbilla)  ; 

(2)  Chachapoyas  (cap.  Chachapoyas) ; 

(3)  Luya  (cap.  Lamud). 

The  department  is  largely  covered  by  virgin  forest,  with 
rubber,  coca,  and  the  usual  forest  products  ; agricultural 
products  in  the  valleys  include  cacao,  coffee,  sugar, 
tobacco,  cotton.  Gold  mines  and  placer  gold  exist,  and 
rock  salt  is  found  at  Chiliquin. 

Ancachs  or  Ancash,  a littoral  department,  is  estimated 
to  contain  16,562  square  miles  (42,908  sq.  kiloms.),  with 
a population  of  317,000  (i.e.,  an  average  of  7 5 per  square 
kilometre).  It  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific, 
on  the  north  and  north-east  by  La  Libertad,  on  the  east 
by  Huanuco  and  Junin,  and  on  the  south  by  Lima. 
The  department  is  very  mountainous.  On  the  coast  are 
the  ports  of  Santa,  Chimbote,  Samanco  (on  the  Bay  of 
Ferrol),  Casma,  and  Huarmei.  This  region  is  watered 
by  the  rivers  Santa,  Nepeha,  Casma,  Huarmei,  and 
Fortaleza,  all  of  which,  except  the  first,  rise  on  the  west 
of  the  cordillera  and  are  dry  for  most  of  the  year  ; the 
intermediate  portions  of  the  coast  are  completely  barren. 
The  first  river  rises  east  of  the  Cordillera,  and  under  the 
name  of  Huaras  flows  north-west  through  the  long  valley  of 
the  Callejon  of  Huaras.  In  the  north  of  the  department 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


59 


it  turns  west  and,  after  uniting  with  the  Chuquisaca, 
takes  the  name  of  Santa,  and  passes  through  a deep  gorge 
in  the  Cordillera  to  the  Pacific.  Its  total  length  is  about 
180  miles.  The  valley  of  the  Santa  is  extremely  fertile, 
and  rice  and  sugar  plantations  flourish.  It  is  connected 
with  the  port  of  Chimbote  by  a railway  running  as  far  as 
Tablones,  and  intended  ultimately  to  pass  Cards,  Yungay, 
Huards,  and  Recuay.  The  capital  is  Huards. 

The  provinces  are — 

Bolognesi  (cap.  Chiquidn) ; 

Cajatambo  (cap.  Cajatambo) ; 

Huailas  (cap.  Cards) ; 

Huards  (cap.  Huards) ; 

Huari  (cap.  Huari) ; 

Pallasca  (cap.  Cabana) ; 

Pomabamba  (cap.  Pomabamba) ; 

Santa  (cap.  Casma) ; and 

Yungay  (cap.  Yungay). 

The  agricultural  products  of  the  department  include 
sugar,  rice,  cereals,  grapes,  potatoes,  maize  ; Cards  grows 
a special  kind  of  potato,  which  matures  in  three  months. 
The  mineral  wealth  includes  coal  (anthracite,  near 
Chimbote  and  Huards  ; bituminous,  in  many  parts), 
petroleum,  gold,  copper,  silver,  quicksilver,  antimony, 
cinnabar,  lead,  kaolin,  clay,  marble.  There  is  a con- 
siderable amount  of  cattle  rearing.  Tanning  and  textile 
industries  (mattings,  carpets,  blankets)  are  pursued  in 
the  towns. 

Apurimac  is  a sierra  department,  estimated  to  contain 
8,187  square  miles  (21,209  sq.  kiloms.),  with  a population 
of  133,000,  an  average  of  6 3 per  square  kilometre. 


60 


PERU 


It  is  bounded  on  north  and  west  by  Ayacucho,  on  south 
by  Ayacucho  and  Arequipa,  and  on  east  by  Cuzco. 
It  is  a highland  district,  with  great  grazing  grounds  and 
forests,  and  is  drained  by  the  river  Apurimac  (which 
divides  it  from  Cuzco)  and  the  tributaries  Tambobamba, 
Pachachaca,  and  Pampas,  which  flow  to  its  left  bank. 
The  capital  is  Abancay. 

The  soil  is  fertile  and,  in  addition  to  extensive  rearing 
of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  there  is  a considerable  pro- 
duction of  cereals,  sugar,  rice,  coffee,  cocoa,  maize,  and 
potatoes.  The  mining  includes  gold,  silver,  copper, 
saltpetre.  Woollen  articles  are  manufactured,  and  a 
small  amount  of  silk  fabrics  ; the  silkworm  is  cultivated 
near  Abancay. 

The  provinces  are — 

(1)  Abancay  (cap.  Abancay) ; 

(2)  Aimaraes  (cap.  Chalhuanca) ; 

(3)  Andahuailas  (cap.  Andahuailas)  ; 

(4)  Antabamba  (cap.  Antabamba)  ; and 

(5)  Cotabambas  (cap.  Tambobamba). 

Arequipa,  a coast  department,  is  estimated  to  contain 
21,947  square  miles  (56,857  sq.  kiloms.),  with  a population 
of  172,000,  an  average  of  three  per  square  kilometre. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  lea,  Ayacucho,  and  Cuzco; 
on  the  south-west  by  the  Pacific  ; and  on  the  east  by 
Puno  and  Moquegua.  The  coast  contains  the  minor 
ports  of  Chala,  Atico,  Ocona,  Camand,  Quilca,  Islay,  and 
the  major  port  of  Mollendo,  the  second  largest  in  the 
republic.  The  coast  has  numerous  rivers,  the  Acari, 
Atiquipa,  Atico,  Pescadores,  Ocona,  Manga,  Mages,  and 
Vitor  ; the  north  is  watered  by  the  Apurimac  and  its 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


61 


tributaries.  The  south-east  of  the  department  is  traversed 
by  the  Southern  Railway  of  Peru,  connecting  Mollendo. 
via  Arequipa,  with  Cuzco,  Puno,  and  La  Paz.  The  capital 
is  Arequipa,  one  of  the  leading  cities  of  Peru,  seat  of  a 
cathedral,  a superior  court,  and  a university,  and  an 
important  manufacturing  and  commercial  centre. 

The  provinces  are — 

Arequipa  (cap.  Arequipa) ; 

Cailloma  (cap.  Cailloma) ; 

Camand  (cap.  Camana) ; 

Castilla  (cap.  Aplao) ; 

Condesuyos  (cap.  Chuquibamba)  ; 

Islay  (cap.  Mollendo) ; and 

La  Union  (cap.  Cotahuasi). 

Cotton,  sugar,  olives,  and  grapes  are  grown  in  the  valleys  ; 
and  maize,  potatoes,  and  cereals  in  the  uplands.  The 
mineral  products  include  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  coal, 
sulphur,  manganese,  rock-salt,  borax,  gypsum,  alum, 
kaolin  clay  ; silver  is  produced  in  considerable  quantity 
in  Cailloma.  Most  of  the  manufactures  of  the  country 
are  represented  at  Arequipa,  including  textiles, 
hide-dressing,  brewing,  and  engineering. 

Among  the  physical  features  of  the  department  may 
be  mentioned  the  shifting,  crescent-shaped  sand  dunes 
of  the  Pampa  or  Desert  of  Islay,  which  lies  at  a mean 
elevation  of  4,000  ft. 

Ayacucho,  an  extensive  sierra  department,  is  estimated 
to  contain  18,185  square  miles  (47,111  sq.  kiloms.),  with 
a population  of  227,000 — an  average  population  of  4 8 
per  square  kilometre.  It  is  bounded  by  Huancavelica  and 
lea  on  the  west,  Arequipa  on  the  south  and  south-east, 


62 


PERU 


and  Apurimac  and  Cuzco  on  the  east.  It  is  mainly 
a district  of  high  plateaux,  watered  by  the  Apurimac 
(which  forms  much  of  its  eastern  boundary)  and  its 
tributaries,  especially  the  Pulperia.  In  the  south  is  Lake 
Parinacocha,  12  miles  long  by  6 miles  broad.  (The 
capital  is  Ayacucho.) 

The  provinces  are — (1)  Ayacucho  (cap.  Ayacucho) ; 
(2)  Cangallo  (cap.  Cangallo) ; (3)  Huanta  (cap.  Huanta) ; 
(4)  La  Mar  (cap.  San  Miguel) ; (5)  Lucanas  (cap.  Puquio) ; 
and  (6)  Parinacochas  (cap.  Coracora). 

Cattle  and  a hardy  type  of  sheep  are  extensively  bred  ; 
cereals,  maize,  potatoes,  sugar,  grapes,  with  a little  coffee, 
cotton,  and  cocoa  are  grown.  The  gold  mines  are  mostly 
abandoned,  but  the  Lucanas  district  is  rich  in  silver  ; 
nickel,  cobalt,  copper,  manganese,  sulphur,  and  asphalt 
occur.  The  industries  include  woollen  textiles,  sugar, 
wine,  and  alcohol  manufactures. 

Cajamarca,  a northern  sierra  department,  is  estimated 
to  contain  12,540  square  miles  (32,482  sq.  kiloms.),  with 
a population  of  333,300 — an  average  of  10-2  per  square 
kilometre.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Ecuador  ; on 
the  west  by  Piura,  Lambayeque,  and  La  Libertad  ; on 
the  south  by  La  Libertad  ; and  on  the  east  by  Amazonas. 
The  department  is  watered  by  the  Maranon  (which  forms 
nearly  the  whole  of  its  eastern  boundary)  and  by  tribu- 
taries entering  it  from  the  west.  The  south-west  has 
communication  with  the  port  of  Pacasmayo  by  a railway, 
which  is  intended  to  extend  to  Cajamarca.  The  capital 
is  Cajamarca,  on  the  river  Camarca,  a tributary  of  the 
Maranon.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  industrial  centres  of  the 
inter-Andean  district,  and  is  notable  for  its  Inca  ruins 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


63 


and  as  the  scene  of  the  capture  of  Atahuallpa  in 
1532. 

The  provinces  are — (1)  Cajabamba  (cap.  Cajabamba) ; 
(2)  Cajamarca  (cap.  Cajamarca) ; (3)  Celendin  (cap. 

Celendin) ; (4)  Chota  (cap.  Chota) ; (5)  Contumazd  (cap. 
Contumaza) ; (6)  Hualgayoc  (cap.  Hualgayoc) ; (7)  Jaen 
(cap.  Jaen  de  Bracamoros). 

The  highlands  are  favourable  to  the  breeding  of  cattle 
and  a hardy  type  of  sheep.  The  cultivated  valleys  pro- 
duce cereals,  coffee,  and  sugar  ; gold,  silver,  coal,  copper, 
and  other  minerals  are  found. 

Callao  was  constituted  a littoral  province  in  1836,  and 
a “ constitutional  ” province  in  1857,  in  commemoration 
of  its  repeated  defence  of  the  constitution  of  the  republic. 
It  extends  from  the  river  Rimac  on  the  north  to  the 
Mar  Brava  on  the  south,  with  an  area  of  14£  square  miles 
(37  kil.) ; its  population  is  35,000,  of  whom  about  one- 
tenth  are  foreigners.  In  addition  to  the  city  of  Callao 
(for  which,  see  List  of  Towns),  it  includes  the  wards  or 
barrios  of  Bellavista  and  La  Punta,  and  the  islands  of 
San  Lorenzo,  Fronton,  and  others  off  the  coast.  Stone 
is  quarried  on  San  Lorenzo,  and  the  island  is  used  as  a 
depository  for  explosives. 

Cuzco,  the  largest  sierra  department,  is  estimated  to 
contain  89,447  square  miles  (228,985  kiloms.),  with  a 
population  of  300,000,  or  1 -3  per  square  kilometre.  These 
figures  are  much  smaller  than  those  formerly  given,  owing 
to  the  recent  creation  of  a new  Montana  department,  viz., 
Madre  de  Dios  ( q.v .)  and  certain  cessions  of  territory  to 
Bolivia  and  Brazil.  Cuzco  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Loreto  and  Brazil ; on  the  west  by  J unin,  Ayacucho,  and 


64 


PERU 


Apurimac  ; on  the  south  by  Arequipa  ; and  on  the  east 
by  Puno  and  Madre  de  Dios.  It  is  watered  (1)  by  the 
Apurimac  (which  forms  almost  the  whole  of  its  boundary) 
and  its  tributaries  ; (2)  by  the  Urubamba,  which  takes 
the  successive  names  of  Vilcamayo,  Yucay,  Santa  Ana, 
Urubamba,  Quillabamba ; (3)  by  the  Paucartambo ; 

(4)  by  the  upper  waters  of  the  Purus,  Madre  de  Dios, 
and  other  rivers  of  western  Brazil.  These  last  flow 
eastwards ; the  others  have  a general  north-westerly 
direction. 

Cuzco  (the  city)  and  the  south  of  the  department  are 
connected  by  the  Southern  Railway  with  Mollendo,  Puno, 
and  La  Paz. 

The  capital  is  Cuzco,  the  former  metropolis  of  the  Inca 
empire  ; the  whole  neighbourhood  contains  numerous 
remains  of  great  archaeological  importance.  (For  modern 
Cuzco,  see  the  List  of  Towns ; it  is  an  important 
manufacturing  and  commercial  centre.) 

The  provinces  are  twelve  in  number,  viz.  : (1)  Acomayo 
(cap.  Acomayo)  ; (2)  Anta  (cap.  Anta)  ; (3)  Calca  (cap. 
Calca)  ; (4)  Canas  (cap.  Yanaoca)  ; (5)  Canchis  (cap. 
Sicuani)  ; (6)  La  Convencion  (cap.  Santa  Ana)  ; (7)  Cuzco 
(cap.  Cuzco)  ; (8)  Chumbivilcas  (cap.  Santo  Tomas)  ; (9) 
Paruro  (cap.  Paruro)  ; (10)  Paucartambo  (cap.  Paucar- 
tambo) ; (11)  Quispicanchi  (cap.  Urcos)  ; and  (12) 

Urubamba  (cap.  Urubamba). 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry,  coffee,  sugar,  cocoa, 
and  coca  being  produced ; the  best  coffee  district  in 
Peru  is  that  of  Paucartambo  and  Chancamayo,  and 
cocoa  of  exceptional  quality  is  grown  for  the  home 
market.  There  are  large  sugar  plantations  in  the  valleys 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


65 


of  the  Urubamba  and  Paucartambo,  and  the  province  of 
Urubamba  produces  the  finest  coca. 

Mining  is  only  done  on  a small  scale  ; gold  is  mined  in 
the  provinces  of  Cuzco  and  Paucartambo,  and  is  found 
in  alluvial  deposits  in  the  latter  province  and  in 
Quispicanchi.  Copper,  coal,  iron,  and  many  other 
minerals  exist,  the  greatest  variety  being  in  Canas  pro- 
vince. Cattle  and  wool-bearing  animals  are  bred, 
especially  in  Canchis. 

There  is  a large  home  industry  in  weaving  and  knitting  ; 
for  the  manufactures,  centred  at  Cuzco,  see  under  Cuzco 
in  the  List  of  Towns. 

Huancavelica,  a central  sierra  department,  is  estimated 
to  contain  an  area  of  9,250  square  miles  (23,967  sq.  kiloms.), 
with  a population  of  167,840 — an  average  of  7-2  per  square 
kilometre.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  J unin  ; on  the 
west  by  Lima  ; on  the  south  by  lea  ; and  on  the  east  by 
Ayacucho.  It  is  watered  in  the  north  by  the  Mantaro 
and  its  tributaries,  and  in  the  south  by  the  upper  waters 
of  the  rivers  of  lea,  the  Chincha,  lea,  and  Grande.  In 
the  high  Andes  occur  the  Lakes  of  Choclococha  and 
Orcococha.  There  is,  as  yet,  no  railway  communication, 
though  the  Central  Railway  approaches  its  north-east 
boundary  at  Huancayo.  There  are  several  thermal 
springs. 

The  capital  is  Huancavelica,  in  the  northern  half  of  the 
department. 

The  provinces  are  as  follows  : (1)  Angaraes  (cap.  Lircay) ; 
(2)  Castroverreina  (cap.  Castrovirreina) ; (3)  Huancavelica 
(cap.  Huancavelica)  ; and  (4)  Tayacaja  (cap.  Pampas.) 

There  is  a certain  amount  of  agriculture,  cattle-raising, 


66 


PERU 


and  weaving  in  this  department,  but  its  great  wealth  lies 
in  its  mineral  resources.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  and  quick- 
silver occur  in  abundance  ; and  coal,  petroleum,  salt, 
saltpetre,  cinnabar,  and  lead  also  occur.  Near  the  capital, 
mining  and  smelting  of  gold,  silver,  and  quicksilver  form 
the  chief  industries.  The  quicksilver  mines  of  Huan- 
cavelica  have  been  famous  since  their  opening  in  1566, 
and  were  one  of  the  chief  source  of  Spanish  wealth  during 
the  Colonial  period.  The  old  workings  lie  buried  under 
a vast  fall  of  earth,  and  the  ore,  though  still  extracted,  is 
on  a far  smaller  scale  than  of  old. 

Hudnuco,  a central  sierra  department,  is  estimated  to 
contain  14,024  square  miles  (36,331  sq.  kiloms.),  with  a 
population  of  109,000 — an  average  of  3 per  square  kilo- 
metre. It  is  bounded  by  Loreto  to  the  north  and  east, 
by  Ancachs  to  the  west,  and  by  Junin  to  the  south.  It 
lies  like  a saddle  over  the  central  and  eastern  Cordillera, 
and  is  watered  by  the  Ucayali  (which  forms  its  eastern 
boundary),  the  Pachitea,  the  Huallaga,  and  the  Maranon, 
which  rises  in  Lake  Lauricocha  in  the  south-west  of  the 
department.  The  first  two  are  navigable,  and  the 
“ central  ” route  from  Lima  to  Iquitos  via  rivers  Pichis, 
Pachitea,  and  Ucayali  passes  through  this  department. 
The  capital  is  Huanuco,  on  the  Upper  Huallaga  : the 
seat  of  a bishopric. 

There  are  three  provinces,  viz.,  (1)  Dos  de  Mayo  (cap. 
La  Union) ; (2)  Huamalies  (cap.  Llata) ; and  (3)  Hudnuco 
(cap.  Hudnuco.) 

Agricultural  products  include  cereals,  maize,  potatoes, 
coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  coca.  Cattle,  sheep, 
and  pigs  are  bred.  The  mountains  are  rich  in  gold, 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


67 


silver,  and  quicksilver  ; while  coal,  iron,  and  copper  also 
occur. 

Ica,  a coast  department,  estimated  to  contain  an  area 
of  8,718  square  miles  (22,586  sq.  kiloms.),  with  a popula- 
tion of  68,200 — an  average  of  three  per  sq.  kilometre. 
It  touches  the  department  of  Lima  on  the  north  ; and  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Huancavelica  and  Ayacucho,  on 
the  south  by  Arequipa,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific. 

Formerly  a province  of  Lima,  Ica  was  made  an  inde- 
pendent province  in  1855  and  a department  in  1868. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Chincha,  Pisco,  Ica,  and  Grande, 
which  flow  from  the  Cordillera  to  the  Pacific.  Near  Ica 
are  the  Lakes  of  Huacachina  and  Cachiche,  noted  for 
therapeutic  properties.  The  valleys  are  extremely  fertile, 
and  there  is  much  good  land  still  uncultivated  that  only 
needs  irrigation.  The  capital  is  Ica,  which  is  connected 
by  railway  with  the  port  of  Pisco. 

Ica  is  divided  into  the  three  provinces  of  (1)  Chincha 
(cap.  Chincha  Alta)  ; (2)  Ica  (cap.  Ica)  ; and  (3)  Pisco 
(cap.  Pisco). 

The  chief  products  of  the  department  are  agricultural, 
viz.,  grapes  and  other  fruits,  sugar-cane,  and  cotton  ; 
maize,  bird  pepper  (aji),  divi-divi,  and  cereals  (including 
alfalfa  or  lucerne)  are  also  grown.  Wine-making  and 
alcohol  distilling  are  flourishing  industries,  as  is  also 
sugar-refining  ; there  is  some  textile  manufacture  and 
bee-keeping.  Copper,  salt,  coal,  iron,  marble,  gypsum, 
and  clays  exist,  but  are  not  as  yet  much  worked. 

Juntn,  a central  sierra  department,  is  estimated  to 
contain  23,350  square  miles  (60,484  sq.  kiloms.),  with  a 
population  of  305,700 — an  average  of  five  per  square 


PERU 


kilometre.  It  is  bounded  by  Huanuco  on  the  north  ; by 
Ancachs  and  Lima  on  the  west ; by  Huancavelica  on  the 
south  ; and  by  Loreto,  Cuzco,  and  Ayacucho  on  the  east. 
It  possesses  three  well-marked  districts : the  West, 

traversed  by  the  main  Andean  range,  is  rich  in  minerals  ; 
the  Central  portion  is  a land  of  high  plateaux,  suited  for 
grazing  and  agriculture  ; the  East  sinks  to  the  valley  of 
the  Ucayali  (its  boundary  from  Loreto),  and  displays  the 
tropical  vegetation  of  the  Montana.  J ust  south  of  Cerro 
de  Pasco  lies  Lake  J unin  or  Chinchaycocha,  36  miles  long 
by  7 miles  wide,  the  second  largest  lake  in  Peru  ; it  is 
13,322  ft.  above  sea-level.  In  the  neighbourhood  the 
Spanish  army  was  defeated  in  August,  1824,  by  the 
national  army  under  Bolivar. 

Junin  contains  the  head  waters  of  some  important 
rivers  of  the  Amazon  basin.  The  Maranon  rises  near  the 
boundary  with  Huanuco.  The  Jauja  flows  in  part  from 
Lake  Junin,  and  assumes  later  the  names  of  Mantaro, 
Ene,  Tambo,  and  finally  Ucayali ; it  forms  the  boundary 
of  the  department  on  the  east.  Among  the  lesser  rivers 
are  the  Perene,  which  flows  east  and  joins  the  Ene  ; and 
the  Palcazu  and  Pichis,  which  unite  to  form  the  Pachitea 
of  Huanuco. 

The  Central  Railway  runs  from  Callao  and  Lima  to 
Oroya,  and  then  south-east  to  Huancayo  ; a branch  from 
Oroya  extends  to  Cerro  de  Pasco  and  Goyllarisquizga. 
Another  line  is  projected  to  connect  Cerro  de  Pasco  with 
the  Ucayali,  and  so  by  river  navigation  with  Iquitos. 
Meantime  the  “ Central  ” route  from  the  latter  town 
passes  via  the  river  Pichis  through  south-east  Junin  to 
Oroya.  The  capital  is  Cerro  de  Pasco.  (See  List  of  Towns.) 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


69 


The  provinces  are  as  follows : (1)  Huancayo  (cap. 
Huancayo)  ; (2)  Jauja  (cap.  Santa  Fe  de  Jauja)  ; (3) 
Pasco  (cap.  Cerro  de  Pasco) ; and  (4)  Tarma  (cap.  Tarma). 

The  products  vary  with  the  physical  zones  mentioned 
above.  The  immense  mineral  wealth,  chiefly  exploited 
by  the  American  mining  companies  of  Cerro  de  Pasco 
and  Morococha,  embrace  silver,  copper,  lead,  vanadium, 
with  gold,  coal,  salt,  cinnabar,  marble,  and  phosphates 
of  lime.  The  supply  of  vanadium  has  grown  largely 
since  its  discovery  in  1904,  and  is  now  about  70  per  cent, 
of  the  world’s  output.  Smelting  is  carried  on  extensively. 

The  plateaux  have  large  stocks  of  cattle  and  wool- 
bearing animals  ; there  is  a great  sheep  ranch  at  Atocsayo, 
30  miles  north  of  Oroya.  Cereals,  maize,  and  potatoes 
are  grown.  Snow-cured  meat  ( chalona ) is  made. 

In  the  tropical  east  of  the  department  are  coca  planta- 
tions, coffee  (especially  in  the  Perene  valley),  sugar,  cocoa, 
and  fruit. 

The  handicrafts  include  woollen  textiles  and  hats. 

Lambayeque,  a small  coast  department,  estimated  to 
contain  an  area  of  4,614  square  miles  (11,952  sq.  kiloms.), 
with  a population  of  93,000 — an  average  of  7-25  per  square 
kilometre.  It  is  bounded  by  Piura  on  the  north,  Caja- 
marca  on  the  east,  La  Libertad  on  the  south,  and  the 
Pacific  on  the  west.  It  contains  the  ports  of  Eten  and 
Pimentel,  with  the  cove  ( caleta ) of  Cherrepe,  and  is 
watered  by  the  small  rivers  Morrope,  Lambayeque,  and 
Sana.  The  railways  are  : (1)  Eten  to  Lambayeque  and 
Ferrenape  ; (2)  Eten  to  Cayalti ; (3)  Pimentel  to  Lam- 
bayeque ; and  (4)  Chiclayo  to  Patapo.  The  capital 
(formerly  Sana  or  Santiago  de  Miraflores)  is  now  Chiclayo. 

fr-(2247) 


70 


PERU 


There  are  only  two  provinces,  viz.,  Lambayeque  and 
Chiclayo,  with  capitals  respectively  of  the  same  names. 

The  department  is  almost  entirely  agricultural,  pro- 
ducing rice,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  coffee,  and  cereals. 
There  is  a little  gold  mining,  and  manufactures  of  hats, 
ponchos,  cotton  and  thread-piece  goods,  saddle  bags,  and 
alcohol. 

Guano  is  produced  from  the  Lobos  Islands,  off  the 
coast. 

Lihertad,  La,  a coast  department,  estimated  to  contain 
an  area  of  10,206  square  miles  (26,441  sq.  kiloms.),  with 
a population  of  188,000— an  average  of  seven  per  square 
kilometre.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Lambayeque 
and  Cajamarca,  on  the  east  by  Loreto,  on  the  south  by 
Ancachs  ; and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific.  It  is  watered 
by  the  rivers  Jequetepec,  Chicama,  Moche,  Viru,  Chao, 
and  Santa,  the  last-named  forming  the  boundary  with 
Ancachs.  It  contains  the  seaports  Pacasmayo,  Huan- 
chaco,  and  Salaverry.  The  railways  are  : (1)  Pacasmayo 
to  Chilete,  with  a branch  to  Guadalupe  ; (2)  Salaverry  to 
Trujillo,  Chicama,  and  Ascope,  with  branches  Trujillo- 
Menocucho,  and  Chicama-Cartavis  ; (3)  a private  sugar- 
line from  Huanchaco  to  the  hacienda  of  La  Roma.  The 
capital  is  Trujillo. 

There  are  six  provinces,  viz.  : (1)  Huamachaco  (cap. 
Huamachaco)  ; (2)  Otusco  (cap.  Otusco)  ; (3)  Pacasmayo 
(cap.  San  Pedro  de  Lloc)  ; (4)  Patas  (cap.  Tayabamba)  ; 
(5)  Santiago  de  Chuco  (cap.  Santiago  de  Chuco)  ; (6) 
Trujillo  (cap.  Trujillo). 

The  coast  provinces  produce  sugar-cane,  rice,  coca,  and 
coffee ; higher  up,  cereals,  maize,  and  potatoes.  The 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


71 


manufactures  include  -ponchos,  carpets,  and  cotton  textiles. 
In  the  sierra,  gold,  silver,  tin,  and  coal  are  found. 

There  are  many  remarkable  remains  at  Trujillo  and  on 
the  neighbouring  coast,  proving  the  existence  of  the  large 
population  and  ancient  civilisation  known  by  the  name 
of  Chimu.  Ruins  of  the  pre-Inca  city  of  Chan  Chan 
exist,  with  a large  necropolis,  which  has  yielded  quantities 
of  textile  fabrics,  pottery,  weapons,  and  objects  of  art, 
dating  back  possibly  some  7,000  years. 

Lima,  a central  coast  department,  is  computed  to  con- 
tain an  area  of  13,310  square  miles  (34,482  sq.  kiloms.), 
with  a population  of  250,000 — an  average  of  7-3  per 
square  kilometre.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Ancachs,  on  the  east  by  Junin  and  Huancavelica,  on  the 
south  by  Huancavelica  and  lea  ; and  on  the  west  by  the 
Pacific.  It  is  a mountainous  district,  with  numerous 
fertile  river  valleys,  of  which  the  principal  are  those  of 
the  Barranca  or  Pativilca,  Supe,  Huauro,  Chancay, 
Carabayllo,  Rimac,  Lurin,  Mala,  and  Canete.  It  con- 
tains the  major  port  of  Callao,  and  the  minor  ports  of 
Supe,  Huacho,  Chancay,  Ancon,  and  Cerro  Azul.  The 
Central  Railway  of  Peru  runs  east  from  Callao  and  Lima 
to  Oroya  in  Junin  ; short  branches  run  from  Lima  north 
to  Ancon  and  Huacho,  and  south  to  the  watering-places 
of  Chorrillos,  Magdalena,  Miraflores,  and  Barranco  ; a 
short  branch  from  Ticlio  runs  to  the  copper  mines  of 
Morococha. 

The  capital  is  Lima,  which  is  also  capital  of  the 
republic.  (For  this  city,  see  the  List  of  Towns.) 

The  provinces  are  six  in  number,  viz.  : (1)  Cahete  (cap. 
Caiiete^  ; (2)  Canta  (cap.  Canta)  ; (3)  Chancay  (cap. 


72 


PERU 


Huacho)  ; (4)  Huarochin  (cap.  Matucana,  a popular 
mountain  resort) ; (5)  Lima  (cap.  Lima)  ; and  (6)  Yauyos 
(cap.  Yauyos). 

The  fertile  valleys  produce  sugar-cane  (chiefly  in 
Canete)  ; cotton,  including  the  “ Sea  Island  ” variety 
(in  Supe,  Huacho,  and  Canete) ; coca  (in  Yauyos) ; 
grapes  ; and  vegetables.  Cereals,  maize,  and  potatoes 
are  grown  on  higher  ground.  The  mountains  provide 
pasturage  for  cattle  and  wool-bearing  animals,  and  are 
also  rich  in  minerals  ; gold,  silver,  copper,  coal,  sulphur, 
chalk,  ochre,  clay,  alum,  lead,  cinnabar,  bismuth,  anti- 
mony, rock  crystal  are  all  found.  Mattings,  woollen 
textiles,  hats,  stringed  meat,  wines,  oil,  sugar,  and  many 
other  industries  exist.  (For  details  of  the  manufactures, 
see  Lima  and  Callao  in  the  List  of  Towns.)  South  of 
Lima  lie  the  ruins  of  the  great  “ Chimu  ” temple  of 
Pachacamac — “ He  who  gives  life  to  the  Universe  ” — 
an  adobe  erection  of  vast  extent,  now  fallen  into  heaps 
of  formless  rubbish. 

Loreto,  the  chief  Montana  department,  is  estimated  to 
contain  an  area  of  172,059  square  miles  (440,471  sq.  kiloms. 
with  a population  of  120,000 — an  average  of  0-27  per 
square  kilometre.  The  Montana  territory  was  assigned 
at  the  time  of  the  Independence  as  a province  of  the 
Intendencia  of  Trujillo,  under  the  name  of  Mainas. 
Later  it  became  a province  of  La  Libertad,  then  of 
Amazonas,  in  1853  an  independent  “ littoral  ” province,” 
and  finally  a military  department.  In  1906  the  western 
portion  was  formed  into  the  new  department  of  San 
Martin.  The  eastern  boundary  with  Brazil  is  now 
settled,  but  the  northern  frontier  line  with  Ecuador  and 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


73 


Colombia  is  still  in  dispute.  The  capital,  originally 
Moyobamba,  is  now  Iquitos,  the  only  town  of  any  size. 
(See  Iquitos,  in  List  of  Towns.) 

The  department  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Ecuador 
and  Colombia,  on  the  west  by  San  Martin  and  La 
Libertad,  on  the  south  by  Hudnuco,  and  on  the  east 
by  Brazil. 

The  chief  river  in  the  east  of  the  department,  the 
Ucayali,  joins  the  Maranon  at  Nauta ; the  eastern 
boundary  is  for  a long  distance  formed  by  the  Javary. 
On  the  north,  the  Maranon  is  joined  by  many  tributaries 
of  considerable  size  ; the  most  important  at  present  are 
the  Napo  and  the  Putumayo. 

There  are  no  railways  and  few  roads  ; on  the  other 
hand,  the  navigable  waterways  afford  communication 
by  steamers  of  light  draught,  and  by  canoes. 

The  provinces  are  : (1 ) Alto  Amazonas  (cap.  Yurim- 
aguas)  ; Bajo  Amazonas  (cap.  Iquitos)  ; and  Ucayali 
(cap.  Contamana). 

There  are  minor  river  ports  at  Yurimaguas,  on  the 
Huallaga ; Contamana,  on  the  Ucayali ; Nazareth,  on 
the  Javary;  and  Caballo  Cocha,  below  Iquitos,  on  the 
Amazon.  Others  are  being  developed  at  Leticia,  Nauta, 
Requena,  and  Orellana. 

(For  the  products,  see  the  Chapters  on  Flora  and 
Forest  Products.) 

The  only  commercial  product  of  any  importance  at 
present  is  rubber  ; next  comes  vegetable  ivory.  Colonisa- 
tion is  being  attempted  on  the  rivers  Pisqui  and  Aguatia. 
Development  is  slow  at  present,  means  of  communication 
scanty,  and  difficulties  of  climate,  etc.,  very  great.  But 


74 


PERU 


there  is  no  doubt  about  the  exceptional  fertility  of  the 
soil  and  the  future  possibilities  of  this  region. 

At  present,  the  communication  between  Loreto  and 
the  coast  of  Peru  is  carried  on  by  river  and  road.  There 
are  two  main  routes  : (1)  By  Amazon  to  Puerto  Borja, 
and  thence  via  Huancabamba  and  Piura  to  Paita  ; (2)  by 
rivers  Ucayali,  Pachitea,  and  Pichis,  then  by  road  to 
Oroya,  and  by  railway  to  Lima  and  Callao. 

The  northern  railway  from  Paita  to  P.  Borja,  though 
long  mooted,  has  been  delayed  for  strategic  reasons,  as  it 
would  pass  very  near  the  Ecuadorian  frontier.  It  is 
more  likely  that  the  first  railway  connection  will  be  from 
Cerro  de  Pasco  to  the  Ucayali. 

Madre  de  Dios,  a Montana  department  created  in 
December,  1912,  is  estimated  to  possess  an  area  of 
25,500  square  miles  (64,112  sq.  kiloms.),  with  a popula- 
tion of  about  16,000 — an  average  of  0-25  per  square 
kilometre. 

The  department  consists  of  area  formerly  assigned  to 
Cuzco  and  Puno,  but  in  dispute  with  Bolivia  ; it  is  now 
definitely  a part  of  Peru.  The  capital  is  Maldonado,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Tambopata  at  its  junction  with 
the  Manu. 

The  three  provinces  are:  (1)  Manu  (cap.  Puerto 

Manu)  ; (2)  Tahuamanu  (cap.  Tahuamanu)  ; and  (3) 
Tambopata  (cap.  Puerto  Maldonado). 

(For  the  forest  products,  see  the  Chapters  on  Flora  and 
Forest  Products.) 

The  district  is  largely  unexplored,  and  for  the  moment 
is  of  no  commercial  importance.  Its  development,  how- 
ever, may  possibly  be  rapid.  A Government  colony  of 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


75 


repatridos  from  Chile  has  been  planted  here  ; rubber  and 
mining  concessions  have  been  granted  to  British  com- 
panies ; and  a railway  line  projected  from  Tirapata,  on 
the  Cuzco  line,  to  the  Madre  de  Dios  river. 

Gold  and  silver  exist  (including  placer  gold). 

Moquegua  is  a littoral  province,  containing  an  esti- 
mated area  of  5,550  square  miles  (14,375  sq.  kiloms.), 
with  a population  of  32,000 — an  average  of  2-3  per  square 
kilometre. 

It  is  bounded  on  the  north-west  by  Arequipa,  north- 
east by  Puno,  south  by  Tacna,  and  south-west  by  the 
Pacific.  It  contains  the  port  of  Ilo,  and  is  watered  by 
the  rivers  Tambo,  Moquegua,  and  Locumba.  There  is 
a railway  from  Ilo  to  Moquegua,  which  is  the  centrally 
situated  capital. 

The  agricultural  products  are  olives,  grapes,  figs, 
cereals,  and  maize.  Wine  and  brandy  are  made.  There 
is  little  mining  at  present,  but  coal,  tin,  manganese, 
copper,  salt,  sulphur,  borax,  gypsum,  and  marble  are 
known  to  exist  in  quantity. 

A recent  loan  for  irrigation  and  colonisation  is  expected 
to  aid  greatly  in  the  development  of  the  province.  The 
soil  is  well  adapted  for  growing  vines  and  olives,  but 
much  of  the  coast  district  has  hitherto  been  desert  from 
lack  of  water  supply. 

Piura,  the  northernmost  coast  department,  is  esti- 
mated to  contain  16,825  square  miles  (38,458  sq.  kiloms.), 
with  a population  of  155,000 — an  average  of  four  per 
square  kilometre.  It  is  bounded  by  Ecuador  on  the  north, 
by  the  Pacific  on  the  west,  by  Cajamarca  on  the  east, 
and  by  Lambayeque  on  the  south.  The  chief  rivers  are 


76 


PERU 


the  Chira  and  the  Piura  ; the  Chira  can  be  ascended  for 
40  miles  from  the  mouth  in  large  canoes.  Parina  Point 
(81°  19' W.)  is  the  westernmost  extremity  of  South 
America. 

The  capital  is  St.  Miguel  de  Piura,  from  which  starts 
an  overland  route  to  Puerto  Borja  on  the  Amazon  (via 
Vicus,  Huancabamba,  Perico,  and  Nazareth),  and  the 
only  railway  in  the  department  (via  Sullana  to  the  port 
of  Paita). 

The  other  chief  towns  are  Paita  on  the  coast  and  the 
capitals  of  provinces  (mentioned  below)  inland. 

The  department  is  subdivided  into  four  provinces,  viz.  : 
(1)  Ayabaca  (cap.  Ayabaca) ; (2)  Paita  (cap.  Paita); 
(3)  Piura  (cap.  Piura) ; and  (4)  Huancabamba  (cap. 
Huancabamba). 

The  coastal  area  includes  among  its  most  valuable 
products,  pitch  and  petroleum  ; sulphur,  mica,  borax  ; 
salt  and  saltpetre  ; and  cotton.  The  best  grades  of 
Peruvian  cotton  are  grown  in  this  department  and 
shipped  from  Paita.  The  upland  districts  afford  pastur- 
age for  cattle  ; the  province  of  Huancabamba  is  noted 
for  its  superior  quality  of  wool ; while  the  goat  and  kid 
skins  possess  unusually  fine  texture,  flexibility,  and  soft- 
ness. Gold  is  mined  in  the  sierra.  The  east  of  the 
department  extends  to  the  head  waters  of  the  Amazon, 
and  contains  the  coffee,  sugar-cane,  and  tobacco  usual  in 
the  tropical  forest  or  montana  region.  The  chief  indus- 
tries are  cotton-textiles,  distilling,  soap,  candles,  and 
straw  hats. 

Puno,  a southern  sierra  department,  is  estimated  to 
contain  an  area  of  27,979  square  miles  (71,627  sq.  kiloms.), 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


77 


with  a population  of  270,000 — an  average  of  3-8  per 
square  kilometre.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Cuzco  ; 
on  the  west  by  Cuzco,  Arequipa,  and  Moquegua ; on  the 
south  by  Chile  ; and  on  the  east  by  Bolivia.  It  includes 
the  northern  half  of  Lake  Titicaca,  the  high  plateau  in 
which  the  lake  stands  with  the  mountains  enclosing  it 
on  west,  north,  and  east ; the  “ knot  ” of  Vilcanota,  on 
the  borders  of  Puno  and  Cuzco,  forms  the  watershed 
dividing  the  Amazon  basin  from  the  enclosed  lacustrine 
basin  of  Titicaca. 

The  northern  portion  of  the  old  department  has 
been  taken  away  (in  1912)  to  form  part  of  the  new 
department  of  Madre  de  Dios  ( q.v .). 

The  capital  is  Puno,  for  which  see  List  of  Towns. 

The  department  is  connected  by  the  Southern  Railway 
with  both  Cuzco  and  Mollendo  ; and  by  steamer  and 
railway  with  La  Paz  in  Bolivia. 

The  provinces  are  : (1)  Ayaviri  (cap.  Ayaviri)  ; (2) 
Asdngaro  (cap.  Asdngaro) ; (3)  Carabaya  (cap.  Macusani)  ; 
(4)  Chucuito  (cap.  J uli) ; (5)  HuancanS  (cap.  Huancane)  ; 
(6)  Lampa  (cap.  Lampa) ; (7)  Puno  (cap.  Puno) ; and  (8) 
Sandia  (cap.  Sandia). 

The  products  are  various  and  important  : cattle  and 
sheep  are  bred,  and  the  wool  of  the  alpaca  and  vicuna 
largely  exported.  Potatoes,  barley,  and  a few  other 
crops  are  grown.  Silver  was  formerly  extracted  in  great 
quantity  ; to-day  this  is  surpassed  by  the  output  of  gold, 
which  is  about  70  per  cent,  of  that  produced  in  the 
country,  and  comes  mainly  from  Sandia  and  Carabaya. 
Coal,  salt,  copper,  antimony,  cinnabar,  arsenic,  quick- 
silver, tin,  marble,  zinc,  cobalt  are  also  found.  Petroleum 


78 


PERU 


and  naphtha  exist  near  the  town  of  Puno.  There  is  a 
considerable  manufacture  of  pottery  at  Lampa,  and  of 
woollen  textiles. 

San  Martin,  a northern  Montana  department,  is  esti- 
mated to  contain  30,745  square  miles  (79,625  sq.  kiloms.), 
with  a population  of  33,000 — an  average  of  0-4  per 
square  kilometre.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  and  south 
by  Loreto,  on  the  west  by  Amazonas,  and  on  the  north 
by  Ecuador.  It  was  formed  in  September,  1906,  being 
carved  out  of  the  north-west  of  Loreto.  It  is  watered 
by  the  Huallaga  and  its  tributaries  in  the  east  side  of  the 
department,  and  by  the  Maranon  and  Pasta£a  in  the 
north.  The  capital  is  Moyobamba. 

The  provinces  are  Huallaga  (cap.  Saposoa)  ; Moyo- 
bamba (cap.  Moyobamba) ; and  San  Martin  (cap.  Tarapoto) . 

The  products  are  as  yet  scanty.  Cacao  has  been 
planted  with  success  ; and  bananas,  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco, 
yuca,  and  coca  are  grown.  Gold,  silver,  coal,  iron,  and 
sulphur  exist.  The  manufactures  include  sugar,  aguard- 
ienta  (rum),  textiles,  matting,  and  straw  hats.  The 
trade  passes  through  the  river  port  of  Yurimaguas  (on 
the  Huallaga),  a rising  town,  about  500  miles  above 
Iquitos. 

Tacna,  south  of  the  rivers  Sama  and  Tarata,  with  its 
three  provinces  of  Arica,  Tacna,  and  Tarata,  is  now  part 
of  Chile,  and  should  no  longer  be  counted  among  the 
departments  of  Peru.  The  part  north  of  the  above- 
named  rivers  has,  since  1884,  had  Locumba  for  its  pro- 
visional capital ; it  will  probably  be  added  to  the 
department  of  Moquegua. 

Tumbes,  formerly  a province  of  Piura,  was  declared 


PROVINCES  AND  POPULATION 


79 


by  the  law  of  20th  December,  1901,  an  independent 
“ littoral  province,”  in  view  of  its  extent  and  its  position 
on  the  frontier  with  Ecuador.  It  is  administered  by  a 
prefect,  and  enjoys  the  other  privileges  belonging  to  a 
department  ; it  is  distinguishable,  however,  from  a true 
department  in  being  divided  into  districts  instead  of 
provinces.  It  lies  between  the  Pacific,  Ecuador,  and 
the  Department  of  Piura,  and  has  an  area  of  1,990  square 
miles  (5,130  sq.  kiloms.),  with  a population  of  8,000 — 
an  average  of  four  per  square  kilometre.  The  capital  is 
Tumbes,  standing  16  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river 
of  the  same  name. 

The  province  is  divided  into  the  four  districts  of 
Corrales,  San  Juan  de  la  Virgen,  Tumbes,  and  Zarumilla. 

In  1531  Pizarro  landed  at  the  old  mouth  of  the  river 
Tumbes.  Here,  at  one  time,  stood  a stately  temple  and 
palace  of  the  Incas,  now  completely  destroyed.  The 
petroleum  springs  of  the  Zorritos  district  were  used  by 
the  Incas.  Since  1864,  and  especially  since  1883,  con- 
siderable attention  has  been  given  to  their  development. 
Over  300  wells  have  been  sunk  in  this  district,  60  in  the 
Punta  Lobitos  district,  and  250  in  the  Negritos  district. 
Refineries  have  been  built  at  Tumbes,  Zorritos,  and 
Talara ; and  an  annual  produce  of  about  1,500,000 
barrels  is  given.  From  Negritos  to  the  port  of  Talara 
(a  distance  of  6 miles)  the  oil  is  conducted  by  a 6-inch  pipe. 

Sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  and  cocoa,  are  also  produced  in 
the  district  ; sulphur,  cobalt,  coal,  salt,  and  iodine  are 
found  ; and  sugar,  kerosene,  alcohol,  and  aniseed  rum 
are  manufactured.  Both  the  home  and  the  international 
trade  are  growing  rapidly. 


CHAPTER  VI 


CONSTITUTION — GOVERNMENT — DEFENCE 

Constitution. — Peru  is  an  independent  republic  of  the 
centralised,  not  the  federal,  type.  The  Constitution  was 
originally  drawn  up  in  1822,  and  fresh  schemes  were 
passed  during  the  early  revolutionary  period  in  1828, 
1833-4,  and  1839.  The  existing  Constitution  was  pro- 
mulgated in  October,  1856,  and  revised  in  November, 
1860.  The  people  are  declared  free  and  sovereign,  con- 
trolling legislation  and  government  through  their  freely- 
elected  representatives.  All  citizens  are  equal  in  the 
eyes  of  the  law.  Voting  power  is  entrusted  to  every 
Peruvian  male  citizen  over  twenty-one  years  of  age,  who 
is  either  married,  or  a master  employer,  or  an  owner  of 
real  property,  or  a taxpayer,  or  able  to  read  and  write. 

Government. — This  is  dealt  with  under  : (1)  National ; 
(2)  Local  Administration.  The  former  comprises  the 
three  independent  branches  of  (a)  the  Legislature  ; ( b ) 
the  Executive  ; and  (c)  the  J udiciary. 

I.  National  Administration 
(a)  The  Legislature  consists  of  the  National  Congress, 
comprising  the  Senate  (52  members),  and  the  House 
of  Representatives  (116  members).  The  members  of 
both  houses  are  elected  by  direct  vote  for  a period  of 
six  years  ; every  two  years  one-third  of  each  Chamber, 
as  decided  by  lot,  retires. 

Senators  must  be  Peruvians  by  birth,  over  thirty-five 

80 


CONSTITUTION— GOVERNMENT 


81 


years  of  age,  and  must  possess  an  income  of  £100  a year, 
or  belong  to  a scientific  profession.  They  are  elected  in 
the  proportion  of  four  senators  for  each  department  of 
eight,  or  more  than  eight,  provinces  ; three  for  each 
department  containing  five,  six,  or  seven  provinces ; 
two  for  each  department  with  two,  three,  or  four  pro- 
vinces ; one  for  each  department  of  one  province  only 
(this  includes  Callao). 

Representatives  must  be  Peruvians  by  birth,  over 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  must  possess  an  income  of 
£50  per  annum,  or  belong  to  a scientific  profession. 
They  are  elected  in  the  proportion  of  one  for  each  30,000 
inhabitants  or  fraction  exceeding  15,000. 

Congress  meets  annually  on  28th  J uly  for  a session  not 
exceeding  ninety  days  ; extraordinary  sessions  may  be 
called  for  periods  not  exceeding  forty-five  days. 

(b)  The  Executive  power  is  entrusted  to  a President, 
who  exercises  his  functions  through  a Cabinet  of  six 
ministers  holding  office  at  his  pleasure.  The  President 
is  elected  for  a period  of  four  years,  and  may  not  be 
re-elected  until  after  an  interval  of  four  years.  There 
are  two  vice-presidents,  who  take  his  place  only  in  case 
of  his  death  or  incapacity.  The  President  and  Vice- 
Presidents  are  elected  by  direct  vote.  The  six  Ministers 
are  those  of  the  Interior  : War  and  Marine  ; Foreign 
Affairs  ; Justice,  with  Worship  and  Education  ; Finance  ; 
and  Public  Works  (“  Fomento  ”).  No  act  of  the 
President  is  valid  unless  countersigned  by  a minister. 

(c)  The  Judiciary  consists  of  a series  of  tribunals  and 
magistrates.  The  Supreme  Court,  whose  members  are 
nominated  by  Congress  from  lists  presented  by  the 


82 


PERU 


Executive,  sits  at  Lima.  Nine  superior  courts  sit  at 
Arequipa,  Ayacucho,  Cajamarca,  Cuzco,  Huaras,  Lima, 
Piura,  Puno,  and  Trujillo  ; their  members  are  nominated 
by  the  President  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  Courts  of  first  instance  sit  in  the  capitals  of  the 
provinces,  with  resident  judges ; their  members  are 
nominated  by  the  President  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  Superior  Courts.  J ustices  of  the  Peace  reside  in  the 
districts. 

II.  Local  Administration 
The  country  is  divided  into  a number  of  departments  ; 
each  department  into  smaller  divisions,  called  provinces  ; 
and  each  province  into  districts.  Each  department  is 
governed  by  a Prefect,  and  each  province  by  a sub- 
prefect ; these  are  State  officials,  appointed  by  the 
Executive.  The  districts  are  in  charge  of  minor  officials, 
called  Gubernadores,  appointed  by  the  prefects  ; they 
are  assisted  by  Alcaldes,  generally  chosen  from  the  Indian 
population. 

Each  department,  province,  district,  and  municipality 
has  its  council, 1 dealing  with  such  subjects  as  police, 
public  health,  road-making,  lighting,  and  the  support  of 
art  and  industry.  By  law  of  1892,  foreigners  are  eligible 
as  members  of  municipal,  district,  and  provincial  councils. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  description  that  the 
Peruvian  Constitution  is  logical,  complete,  and,  in  theory, 
highly  democratic.  In  practice,  it  is  less  democratic 
than  would  at  first  sight  appear,  since  the  great  majority 
of  the  native  inhabitants  are  still  illiterate  and  not 
possessed  of  real  estate.  These  defects,  however,  and 
1 Municipal  Councils  date  from  1873. 


CONSTITUTION— GOVERNMENT 


83 


other  defects  of  working,  into  which  we  need  not  enter, 
may  be  expected  to  diminish  with  the  increasing 
development  and  peaceful  prosperity  of  the  country. 

The  Constitution,  while  granting  absolute  political 
freedom,  prohibits  the  public  exercise  of  any  religion 
other  than  the  Roman  Catholic,  which  is  declared  the 
religion  of  the  State.  In  practice,  however,  a certain 
amount  of  toleration  is  allowed  ; and  Anglican  churches 
and  missionary  schools  exist  in  Lima,  Callao,  Arequipa, 
and  Cuzco.  The  Roman  Catholic  churches  and  convents 
belong  to  the  State,  which  makes  an  annual  subsidy  in 
aid  of  public  worship.  Facilities  for  the  marriage  of 
non-Catholics  has  been  given  by  Acts  passed  in  1897 
and  1903. 

Defence. — The  Army.  Military  service  is,  by  law, 
compulsory  on  all  male  citizens  from  19  to  50  years  of 
age  ; but  a payment  of  £50  exempts  from  service  or 
passes  into  the  Reserve.  The  army  was  re-organised  in 
1896  by  a French  Military  Mission.  The  standing  army 
has  a peace  establishment  of  6,500, 1 with  a war  strength 
(first  and  second  line  only)  of  40,000  : it  includes  5 
battalions,  7 squadrons,  and  6 batteries.  The  requisite 
number  of  conscripts  is  drawn  by  lot  annually.  Service 
is  for  3 years  in  the  infantry  (4  years  in  the  cavalry),  in 
the  active  army  ; 7 (or  6)  years  in  the  first  reserve  ; 
5 years  in  the  second  reserve  ; and  15  years  in  the 
National  Guard.  The  arm  is  the  Mauser  rifle  (1891 
pattern),  with  the  Mauser  carbine  for  the  cavalry  ; the 
artillery  have  modem  Schneider-Canet  guns.  There  are 
five  military  districts. 

1 Now  (1913)  raised  to  7,000. 


84 


PERU 


The  Police  Force  has  a strength  of  5,408,  viz.,  2,413 
civil  guards,  1,900  mounted  police,  and  1,905  foot  police. 

The  Navy.  The  navy  was  completely  destroyed  during 
the  war  with  Chile,  and  is  only  being  slowly  replaced. 
It  consists  of  fourteen  vessels,  of  which  the  chief  are  the 
following- — 

(1)  The  Alphonso  de  Ugarte,  an  old  French  armoured 
cruiser,  purchased  in  1911  and  re-named;  6,400  tons, 
13,000  h.-p.,  22  knots  speed. 

(2)  The  Almivante  Grau  and  Coronel  Bolognesi,  twin 
cruisers,  built  at  Barrow  in  1906 ; 3,200  tons,  24  knots 
speed. 

(3)  The  Lima,  cruiser,  built  at  Kiel  in  1880,  but 
re-boilered  and  re-armed  ; 1,700  tons,  14  knots  speed. 

(4)  Three  transports  : the  Iquitos,  the  Constitucidn, 
and  the  Chalaco ; the  first  of  these  is  used  as  a 
training-ship  for  cadets. 


Cathedral,  Lima 


CHAPTER  VII 


NATIONAL  FINANCE 

The  nineteenth  century  was,  for  Peru,  a period  largely 
of  war  and  revolution  ; while  the  intervening  periods  of 
peace  were  marred  by  extravagance,  corruption,  and 
economic  incompetence.  The  results  upon  the  finances 
of  the  country  were  disastrous  ; and,  though  a certain 
amount  of  order  has  been  introduced  into  the  chaos 
during  recent  years,  it  cannot  be  said  that  Peruvian 
finance  is,  as  yet,  quite  satisfactory.  It  would  serve  no 
useful  purpose  to  enter  into  details  of  the  embarrassments 
and  failures  of  the  last  century  ; but  a few  salient  points 
must  be  mentioned  as  leading  up  to  the  financial  situation 
as  it  exists  to-day. 

Loans  were  negotiated  in  London  at  various  times 
from  1823,  culminating  in  two  issues  of  1870  and  1872  ; 
in  the  latter  year  the  amalgamated  foreign  indebtedness 
of  Peru  amounted  to  £32,688,320,  requiring  an  annual 
payment  of  about  £2,500,000.  This  the  slender  revenue 
ot  the  State  was  utterly  unable  to  meet,  and  payment  of 
interest  ceased  in  1876.  By  1879  the  debt  had  risen  to 
£40,214,969.  Loans  obtained  from  the  banks  led  to  the 
emission  of  an  excessive  amount  of  paper  money,  which 
rapidly  depreciated  by  90  per  cent.  The  war  with  Chile 
soon  followed,  and  resulted  in  the  loss  to  Peru  of  the 
profitable  nitrate  fields  of  Tarapacci  and  of  much  of  the 
guano  deposits  on  which  she  had  depended  for  years. 

Peruvian  Corporation. — By  1889  the  debt  amounted 

85 


7— (3247) 


86 


PERU 


to  over  £45,000,000,  and  a radical  reconstruction  became 
necessary.  This  was  effected  in  January,  1890,  by 
means  of  the  Grace-Donoughmore  contract,  under  which 
Peru  was  freed  from  responsibility  for  the  foreign  loans  ; 
and,  in  return,  yielded  to  a committee  of  foreign  bond- 
holders, for  a period  of  sixty-six  years,  the  State  railways, 
with  certain  rights'  over  guano,  mines,  and  lands  for 
colonisation.  The  committee  thereupon  formed,  and 
transferred  their  rights  and  obligations  to,  the  Peruvian 
Corporation,  Ltd.,  which  has  its  headquarters  at  43-46 
Threadneedle  Street,  London,  E.C.  The  Government 
undertook  to  make  for  thirty-three  years  an  annual 
subsidy  of  £80,000,  secured  on  the  Callao  customs,  but 
soon  fell  again  into  arrears  of  payment.  The  Corpora- 
tion, in  consequence,  suspended  the  stipulated  railway 
extensions.  After  long  negotiation,  a new  agreement 
was  signed  in  April,  1907,  under  which  the  Corporation 
now  works.  Even  yet,  however,  there  are  certain  sub- 
jects unsettled  : in  particular,  the  Mollendo  port  improve- 
ments, the  Cerro  de  Pasco  mining  concessions,  the  Chira 
irrigation  canal,  and  a debt  of  £200,000  due  to  Chile. 

By  the  agreement  of  1907,  the  Corporation’s  former 
lease  of  sixty-six  years  was  extended  by  seventeen  years 
( i.e .,  it  will  not  expire  till  1973).  From  July,  1907,  the 
Government  pays  an  annual  sum  of  £80,000  in  monthly 
instalments  for  thirty  years,  secured  on  the  sugar  tax  of 
1904  ; the  Corporation  pays  as  railway  tax  a sum  of 
£12,000  annually  for  ten  years,  £15,000  for  the  following 
ten  years,  and  £20,000  for  the  next  ten  years,  subse- 
quently paying  according  to  the  ruling  tariff  of  the  year. 
During  the  seventeen  years’  extension,  the  Government 


NATIONAL  FINANCE 


87 


will  receive  50  per  cent,  of  net  receipts  after  a fixed 
reduction  for  the  service  of  railway  obligations,  and  will 
have  the  right  to  nominate  a director.  The  Corporation 
undertook  to  construct  the  lines  Oroya-Huancayo, 
Sicuani-Cuzco,  and  Yonan-Chilete,  taking  over  existing 
Government  contracts  and  returning  the  amount  received 
from  the  Government  in  connection  with  these  exten- 
sions. These  extensions  are  all  completed  and  in 
operation. 

The  various  activities  of  the  Corporation  are  as  follows — 

(1)  Railways.  Eight  railways  are  operated,  viz.  : (i) 
Paita-Piura ; (ii)  Pacasmayo-Guadalupe  and  Chilete  ; 
(iii)  Trujillo-Salaverry  ; (iv)  Chimbote-Tablones  ; (v)  the 
Central  Railway  and  branches  ; (vi)  the  Southern  Rail- 
way and  branches ; (vii)  Ilo-Moquegua ; and  (viii) 
Guaqui-La  Paz.  The  Pisco-Ica  has  been  leased  since 
1910,  the  Corporation  receiving  as  rental  30  per  cent,  of 
the  gross  takings  ; and  the  conditions  of  the  Ilo-Moquegua 
line  have  not  yet  been  sanctioned  by  Congress. 

(2)  Navigation.  Two  lines  of  steamers  are  worked  : 
(a)  on  Lake  Titicaca,  between  Puno  and  Guaqui  ; (6)  on 
the  river  Desaguadero. 

(3)  Guano.  By  the  agreement  of  1890,  the  guano  up 
to  2,000,000  tons  in  Peruvian  territory  was  surrendered 
to  the  bond-holders,  with  an  additional  1,000,000  tons 
on  completion  of  the  Southern  Railway.  Long  negotia- 
tions took  place  with  Chile  over  the  cession  of  Tarapaca, 
and  ultimately  Chile  ceded  the  moneys  accumulated  in 
the  Bank  of  England  from  the  sale  of  guano  (about 
£652,000)  and  80  per  cent,  of  the  proceeds  of  sales  from 
1882  (about  £500,000),  with  the  deposits  of  Pabellon  de 


88 


PERU 


Pica,  Huanillos,  and  Punta  de  Lobos  for  eight  years  ; 
Chile  also  undertook  not  to  ship  guano  for  four  years. 
In  June,  1913,  the  Government  ordered  the  closing  of 
the  Ballestas  Islands,  a measure  against  which  the 
Corporation  has  protested. 

(4)  Colonisation.  The  land  colony  in  the  Peren£ 
Valley  shows  progressive  improvement,  yielding  in  1913 
a profit  of  £540.  The  Corporation  also  holds  shares  to 
the  amount  of  £810  in  the  New  Chosica  Land  Co. 

(5)  Irrigation.  The  Chira  Irrigation  Canal,  which  cost 
£120,695,  is  maintained  and  administered  by  the 
Corporation. 

By  contract  with  the  Government,  the  Corporation 
has  spent  £120,000  on  the  improvement  of  the  port  of 
Mollendo. 

The  various  railways  and  navigations  are  transferred 
to  separate  subsidiary  companies  for  the  purpose  mainly 
of  better  organisation.  The  Corporation  also  hold  840 
ordinary  £1  shares  in  the  Peruvian  Cotton  Manufacturing 
Co.,  upwards  of  £2,500  shares  in  the  Mollendo  Agencies 
Co.,  and  a considerable  amount  of  real  estate  acquired 
for  railway  purposes.  The  piers  and  quays  at  the  coast 
termini  of  their  railway  lines  are  also  worked  by  the 
Corporation. 

The  above  details  indicate  the  vastness  and  importance 
of  the  Corporation’s  undertakings.  The  capital  consists 
of  £7,500,000  Cum.  Pref.  Stock,  £9,000,000  Ord.  Stock, 
together  with  debentures.  The  latter  are  being  gradually 
amortised,  the  amount  in  June,  1913,  standing  at 
£5,176,000.  The  net  receipts  have  shown  a great  improve- 
ment : from  £91,771  in  1890-1  to  £200,758  in  1900-1  and 


NATIONAL  FINANCE 


89 


£468,693  in  1910-11.  Those  for  the  last  year  (1912-3) 
amounted  to  £438,501. 

The  Grace-Donoughmore  contract  was  a revival  of  a 
previous  scheme  for  financial  adjustment,  proposed  in 
1878.  In  that  year  the  price  of  Peruvian  bonds  was  40, 
and  it  was  proposed  to  redeem  them  at  this  price  by  the 
formation  of  limited  companies,  to  which  the  existing 
State  railways  should  be  handed  over  : these  railways 
(for  which  the  loans  had  originally  been  contracted) 
were  valued  at  £15,680,000.  The  Peruvian  Corporation 
received  not  only  these  railways,  but  also  those  of  Pisco, 
Salaverry,  and  Paita,  together  with  £560,948  in  cash, 
and  Chilean  bonds  for  £630,000,  i.e.,  upwards  of 
£18,000,000  in  all ; which  represents  a value  of  55f 
instead  of  40  for  each  bond.  This,  with  the  loss  of 
guano,  and  a standing  subsidy  of  £80,000  a year,  is  the 
price  paid  by  Peru  for  her  disasters  in  the  Pacific  War. 
On  the  other  hand,  she  has  benefited  by  the  extension 
and  efficient  management  of  the  railway  and  other 
services  of  the  Corporation,  work  for  which  her 
previous  record  proves  that  she  was  not  as  yet  fully 
competent. 

Recent  Loans. — Minor  loans  were  raised  in  1906, 
1909,  and  1910.  Of  these,  only  that  for  1909  (of 
£1,200,000,  at  94,  bearing  5£  per  cent,  interest,  secured 
on  the  salt  tax)  remains  unpaid.  A certain  amount  has 
been  amortised,  and  the  total  foreign  debt  on  31st  May, 
1913,  amounted  to  £1,137,330. 

The  present  Government,  with  the  object  primarily  of 
clearing  off  all  overdue  debts  and  claims,  and,  secondarily, 
of  executing  some  necessary  and  productive  works, 


90 


PERU 


proposes  to  issue  a loan  of  £6,600,000  at  6 per  cent.  By 
a stringent  investigation  of  the  national  expenditure  and 
the  enforcement  of  a watchful  economy,  it  hopes  to  pro- 
vide for  the  interest  and  gradual  amortisation  of  both  the 
foreign  and  internal  debts.1 

Internal  Debt 

The  internal  debt  of  Peru  consists  of  (a)  bonds,  consoli- 
dated by  the  law  of  1889,  and  now  standing  at  a nominal 
value  of  £2,660,645,  paying  1 per  cent.  ; (b)  amortisable 
bonds,  non-interest  bearing,  at  a nominal  value  of 
£1,134,210  ; and  (c)  certain  quit-rents,  chaplaincies,  with 
interest  and  recognised  credits,  of  a nominal  value  of 
£511,767.  The  present  quotation  of  the  first  is  13-8  per 
cent.,  and  for  the  second  8-8  per  cent.  The  Government 
propose,  in  the  interests  of  Peruvian  financial  credit,  to 
convert  the  first  at  the  price  of  14£  per  cent.,  and  the 
other  two  at  10  per  cent.,  into  bonds  paying  interest  at 
7 per  cent.1 

Revenue  and  Expenditure 

The  most  authoritative  and  illuminating  statement  on 
the  financial  position  of  Peru  is  to  be  found  in  the 
message  to  Congress  on  5th  September,  1913,  of  Pre- 
sident Guillermo  E.  Billinghurst.  While  indicating  in 
moderate  language  certain  flagrant  abuses  in  the  past, 
it  faces  the  facts  of  the  situation  ; enforces  the  necessity 
of  economy  and  pure  government ; and  presents  in  the 
Budget  for  1914  a “ frank  and  honest  computation,”  in 
which  large  economies  are  carried  into  effect. 

1 This  refers  to  the  administration  of  President  Billinghurst, 
and  was  written  before  its  overthrow  by  the  recent  revolution 
of  4th  February,  1914. 


NATIONAL  FINANCE 


91 


Expenditure  rose  from  £734,693  in  1894  to  £2,506,386 
in  1906  (i.e.,  by  over  26  per  cent,  annually,  or  341  per 
cent,  in  thirteen  years).  For  this  increase  the  President 
could  find  “ no  satisfactory  explanation.”  Again,  from 
1907  to  1912,  expenditure  rose  from  £2,467,834  to 
£3,493,626,  the  increase  in  the  last  year  being  no  less 
than  £660,558.  A marked  and  very  unsatisfactory 
feature  of  these  years  was  the  regular  excess  of  expenditure 
over  revenue,  so  that  the  present  Government  have,  as 
one  legacy  from  the  past,  a debt  of  £676,068  on  the 
years  1908-12  inclusive.  For  purposes  of  comparison, 
it  will  be  well  to  give  the  expenditure  of  the  year 
Jan.-Dee.,  1912,  before  going  on  to  the  new  estimates 
for  1914. 

Expenditure  in  1912 


l 

The  Treasury  . . . . . . . . . . 1 ,092,295 

Ministry  of  War  and  Marine  . . . . 864,664 

Government  and  Police  . . . . . . 633,237 

Justice  and  Education  . . . . . . 499,219 

" Fomento  ” (Development)  . . . . 208,826 

Foreign  Affairs  ..  ..  ..  ..  111,133 

The  Legislature  ..  ..  ..  ..  84,252 


£3,493,626 


The  increased  amount  for  the  Treasury  showed  on 
analysis,  some  temporary  features,  such  as  the  establish- 
ment of  the  tobacco  monopoly,  and  the  payment  of 
previous  debts,  and  certain  others  of  a reproductive 
character. 

The  disproportion  between  estimate  and  payment  in 
the  item  “ interest,  discounts,  and  commissions  ” was 


92 


PERU 


particularised  by  the  President,  who  gave  the  following 
table — 


Estimated. 

Paid. 

1907 

5,000 

9,426 

1908 

5,000 

12,737 

1909 

5,000 

19,977 

1910 

5,000 

33,218 

1911 

5,000 

62,687 

1912 

15,000 

82,249 

£40,000  £220,294 


The  increased  amounts  required  by  War  and  Marine  were 
necessitated  by  the  increase  of  the  standing  army  to 
7,000  men ; increases  of  pay ; renewal  of  equipment ; 
and  payment  of  services  required  by  former  laws,  but  not 
allowed  for  in  the  Budget. 

A leakage  was  revealed  under  the  item  of  “ Preventive 
Police.”  The  estimate  for  this  from  1904-12  was  £4,000 
annually,  or  a total  of  £36,000  ; the  actual  payments 
reached  £140,290.  The  President  noted  that  “ not  only 
had  unjustifiable  disbursements  been  made,  but  the 
money  had  been  applied  to  purposes  for  which  it  was  not 
intended.” 

The  estimates  for  1912  and  1913  were  identical,  and 
were  prepared  by  the  previous  administration.  The 
estimates  for  1914  are  as  follows — 

£ 

Revenue  . . . . . . 3,547,836 

Expenditure  . . . . 3,109,836 

Balance  . . £438,000 


NATIONAL  FINANCE 


93 


The  following  tables  compare  the  Budgets  for  1912 
and  1914  in  detail  (fractions  omitted) — 


I.  Estimated  Revenue  ' 


Sources. 

1912.* 

1914. 

De- 

crease. 

In- 

crease. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

Maritime  Customs  Houses 

1,201,562 

1,305,112 

— 

103,549 

Fluvial  ,,  ,, 

233,000 

200,000 

33,000 

— 

Taxes  . . 

670,450 

730,428 

— 

59,978 

Monopolies 

688,495 

740,708 

— 

52,213 

Fiscal  Wharves 

22,938 

3,312 

19,626 

— 

Various  Revenues  . . 

175,410 

219,776 

— 

44,366 

Telegraphs 

30,000 

35,606 

— 

5,606 

Post  Offices  . . 

96,800 

129,019 

— 

32,219 

Wireless  Telegraphy 

2,114 

2,115 

— 

1 

Peruvian  Corporation 

12,000 

12,000 

— 

— 

Deposits  and  Consignments 

6,000 

6,780 

— 

780 

Cereal  Deposits,  Bellavista 

10,700 

14,569 

— 

3,869 

Explosives 

2,562 

2,562 

— 

— 

Education  Funds 

161,364 

145,849 

15,515 

— 

Total.. 

3,313,396 

3,547,836 

68,141 

302,581 

II.  Estimated  Expenditure 


Branches. 

1912.* 

1914. 

De- 

crease. 

In- 

crease. 

Legislature 

£ 

107,942 

£ 

107,942 

r 

T> 

£ 

Government  . . 

559,715 

510,613 

49,102 

— 

Foreign  Affairs 

98,620 

88,814 

9,806 

— 

Justice 

520,325 

481,345 

38,979 

— 

Treasury 

1,070,829 

888,224 

182,604 

— 

War  . . 

738,401 

832,385 

— 

93,984 

“ Fomento  ” . . 

217,500 

200,510 

17,049 

— 

3,313,396 

3,109,836 

297,543 

93,984 

* These  tables  give  estimated  expenditure  for  financial  year  of 
1912  ; the  table  given  above  shows  the  actual  disbursements 
from  Jan.-Dee.,  1912. 


94 


PERU 


It  may  be  noted  that  salt  was  declared  a Government 
monopoly  in  1896.  The  proceeds  were  intended  to  be 
devoted  to  the  ransom  of  Tacna  and  Arica,  but  have  since 
been  used  to  guarantee  foreign  loans.  The  collection  is 
farmed  out  to  the  Compania  Salinera  Nacional. 

Tobacco  similarly  was  declared  a Government  monopoly 
in  1909. 

The  collection  of  other  taxes  is  farmed  out  to  the 
National  Tax  Collecting  Co.  (Compania  Nacional  de 
Recaudacion),  which  takes  1 per  cent,  on  the  revenue  of 
the  branches  it  administers  ; 6 per  cent,  for  collection  of 
Lima  and  Callao  licence  fees ; and  10  per  cent,  for 
administration  of  moles  at  Tumbes,  Supe,  and  Chala. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


COMMERCIAL  AND  GENERAL  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS 

INDIVIDUAL  LIBERTY  — COMMERCIAL  LAWS — BANKS— 
PUBLIC  HEALTH — LANGUAGES — EDUCATION — INSTITUTIONS 
AND  CHARITIES — NEWSPAPERS  AND  PERIODICALS — LABOUR 
CONDITIONS — IMMIGRATION 

The  following  guarantees  of  individual  liberty  are  quoted 
from  Chapter  IV  of  the  Constitution  of  Peru — 

Art.  14.  No  one  is  obliged  to  do  what  is  not  ordered  by  the 
Law,  nor  is  he  prevented  from  doing  what  the  law  does  not 
prohibit. 

Art.  15.  No  law  has  nor  can  have  retroactive  effects. 

Art.  16.  The  law  protects  honour  and  life  against  all 
unjust  aggression  ; the  penalty  of  death  can  only  be  applied 
for  homicide  qualified  as  premeditated  murder. 

Art.  17.  There  are  not  and  cannot  be  slaves  in  the  Republic. 

Art.  18.  No  one  can  be  arrested  except  upon  the  written 
warrant  of  a duly  qualified  judge  ; or  of  the  authorities 
charged  with  the  duty  of  preserving  public  order  ; except 
if  taken  in  flagrante  delicto  ; and  in  all  cases  a person  arrested 
must  be  brought  before  a magistrate  within  twenty-four  hours 
after  arrest.  Those  charged  to  carry  out  the  warrant  must 
give  a copy  of  it  to  the  accused  if  asked  to  do  so. 

Art.  19.  The  jails  are  places  for  detention  and  not  for 
punishment.  All  severity  is  prohibited  if  not  necessary  for 
the  custody  of  the  prisoners. 

Art.  20.  No  one  can  be  exiled  from  the  Republic,  nor 
separated  from  his  place  of  residence  except  by  a judicial 
sentence. 

Art.  21.  Everybody  is  at  liberty  to  make  use  of  the  press 
for  the  publication  of  his  writings,  without  censorship,  but 
under  the  responsibility  laid  down  by  the  law. 

Art.  22.  The  secrecy  of  correspondence  is  inviolate,  and 
no  legal  use  can  be  made  of  letters  which  have  been  stolen. 

Art.  23.  Everyone  is  at  liberty  to  follow  any  trade,  industry 

95 


96 


PERU 


or  profession  which  is  not  against  the  public  morals,  health  or 
security. 

Art.  24.  The  nation  guarantees  the  existence  and  diffusion 
of  free  primary  education  and  the  support  of  public 
establishments  for  the  sciences,  arts,  religion  and 
benevolence. 

Art.  25.  All  who  can  give  the  guarantee  of  capacity  and 
morality  required  by  the  law  are  at  liberty  to  teach  and  to 
direct  educational  establishments,  under  the  inspection  of  the 
authorities. 

Art.  26.  Property  is  inviolable,  whether  material,  intel- 
lectual, literary,  or  artistic ; no  one  can  be  deprived  of  his , 
unless  for  causes  of  public  utility,  which  have  previously  been 
proved  and  legally  declared,  and  then  only  by  indemnification 
under  a just  valuation. 

Art.  27.  Useful  discoveries  and  inventions  are  the  exclusive 
property  of  their  authors,  unless  these  voluntarily  cede  them 
or  sell  the  secret,  or  when  it  may  be  necessary  for  motives  of 
public  policy  to  expropriate  them  compulsorily.  The  intro- 
ducers of  new  inventions  will  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  the 
inventors  for  the  limited  time  which  is  conceded  in  accordance 
with  the  law. 

Art.  28.  Any  foreigner  may  acquire,  in  accordance  with 
the  law,  territorial  property  in  the  Republic,  under  precisely  the 
same  conditions  and  obligations  with  regard  to  such  property 
as  the  Peruvian  citizen. 

Art.  29.  All  citizens  have  the  right  to  associate  peacefully, 
whether  in  public  or  private,  so  long  as  they  do  not  disturb 
public  order. 

Art.  30.  The  right  of  petition  may  be  exercised  individually 
or  collectively. 

Art.  31.  The  domicile  is  inviolable;  no  one  can  enter  it 
without  previously  showing  the  written  warrant  of  a judge 
or  of  the  authorities  charged  with  maintaining  public  order. 
The  executors  of  the  said  warrant  are  obliged  to  give  a copy 
of  it  when  asked  to  do  so. 

Art.  32.  The  laws  protect  and  are  obligatory  equally  to  all. 
New  laws  may  be  established  when  the  circumstances  show 
them  to  be  required,  but  not  for  the  differentiation  between 
persons. 


COMMERCIAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  97 


By  the  Law  of  14th  October,  1892,  foreigners  are 
eligible  as  members  of  the  Municipal,  District,  and 
Provincial  Councils. 

By  laws  passed  in  1897  and  1903,  facilities  have  been 
given  for  the  civil  marriage  of  non-Catholics  and  of 
foreign  residents. 

Commercial  Laws. — The  Commercial  Code  of  Peru  is, 
substantially,  the  Spanish  Code  of  Commerce  of  1885  ; 
it  has  been  slightly  modified  by  later  legislation.  A few 
points  may  be  of  interest  to  English  readers. 

A Mercantile  Register  is  kept  in  the  capitals  of  depart- 
ments : one  book  for  individual  traders,  and  one  for  com- 
panies ; in  Callao,  Iquitos,  and  Puno,  a third  book  is 
kept  for  vessels.  Inscription  on  the  register  is  optional 
for  individuals,  but  compulsory  for  all  companies — 
domestic  and  foreign. 

Foreign  companies  must  produce  a certificate  from  the 
Peruvian  Consul  in  their  own  country  that  they  are  in 
that  country  legally  constituted. 

Commercial  exchanges  may  be  established  where 
necessary,  and  require  Government  authorisation  ; also 
colleges  of  exchange  brokers,  commercial  brokers,  and 
interpreting  shipbrokers,  each  of  which  must  have  a 
governing  board.  The  registers  of  all  collegiate  brokers 
are  legal  evidence. 

The  chief  of  these  institutions  is  the  Commercial 
Exchange  of  Lima,  regulated  by  a decree  of  1898.  The 
members,  elected  by  ballot,  pay  3 soles  per  quarter  ; 
large  firms  pay  10  soles  quarterly  and  receive  four  cards 
of  admission.  Non-residents  in  Lima  may  be  introduced 
by  members. 


98 


PERU 


Banks  are  ordered  to  keep  in  cash  a sum  amounting  to 
not  less  than  25  per  cent,  of  their  obligations,  and  to 
publish  in  a local  daily  newspaper  a monthly  statement 
of  their  position.  Cheques  must  be  presented  for  pay- 
ment within  eight  days,  including  the  day  on  which  they 
are  drawn. 

The  ordinary  commercial  instruments,  e.g.,  bills  of 
exchange,  promissory  notes,  cheques,  letters  of  credit,  are 
in  vogue,  and  duly  provided  for  and  regulated  in  the  Code. 

Insurance  policies  of  all  kinds  may  be  negotiated  : — for 
fire  ; life  ; transport  by  land,  sea,  and  river  ; and  other 
risks. 

General  deposit  warehouses  are  empowered  to  issue 
receipts  for  merchandise  stored  therein  ; these  receipts 
are  negotiable  by  endorsement  or  other  modes  of 
assignment. 

Regulations  for  Travellers  and  their  Samples.  The 
importation  of  travellers’  samples  to  Peru  is  regulated 
as  follows — 

1.  The  interested  persons  (Travellers)  must  present  in  each 
case,  in  duplicate,  a detailed  inventory  with  the  following 
data — 

(a)  Mark,  number,  and  gross  weight  of  each  bale. 

( b ) Number  of  each  kind  of  goods  in  the  bale,  and  the 
class  and  number  of  the  tariff  to  which  it  belongs ; 
description  of  the  article,  gross,  legal  and  net  weight, 
and  dimensions  of  each  article,  if  possible. 

(c)  Only  one  sample  of  each  kind  of  goods  can  be 
imported ; the  importation  of  several  samples  is  per- 
mitted only  when  there  is  a difference  in  quality,  form, 
size,  weight,  or  colour. 

( d ) The  goods  that,  according  to  the  tariff  are  free  of 
duty,  can  be  imported  without  fulfilling  the  preceding 
requisites  ; and 


COMMERCIAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  99 


(e)  The  goods,  the  importation  of  which  is  prohibited, 

can,  according  to  paragraph  (c)  be  left  in  bond  in  the 

Customs-house,  the  expense  of  packing  and  storage  being 

charged  to  the  interested  persons,  as  per  special  tariffs. 

2.  For  the  objects  contemplated  by  paragraphs  ( a ) and  (d) 
of  the  preceding  article,  certificates  of  consumption  in 
triplicate  must  be  presented. 

3.  The  duties  must  be  paid  in  cash  or  in  bank  drafts,  and 
will  be  returned  as  and  when  the  goods  are  re-exported, 
making  allowance  for  the  expenses  referred  to  in  paragraph 
(e)  of  Article  1. 

4.  The  Customs  House  fixes,  in  each  case,  a reasonable 
term  not  exceeding  three  months  for  the  re-exportation,  and 
there  is  no  right  to  demand  the  recoupment  of  the  monies 
paid  for  duties  after  that  term  has  elapsed.  The  draft  \vill 
be  collected  at  the  end  of  the  term. 

5.  In  order  to  re-export  a collection  of  samples  or  a part 
thereof,  the  interested  persons  must  present  the  requisition 
with  due  anticipation  at  the  Customs  House,  and  the  Customs 
House  is  not  responsible  for  any  delay  in  the  shipping  if 
the  samples  are  not  presented  in  due  time. 

6.  If  on  examination  it  can  be  shown  that  a sample  is 
missing  or  has  been  altered  as  to  its  weight  or  measure,  or 
replaced,  double  duties  will  be  charged,  and  the  article 
intended  for  substitution  will  be  confiscated. 

7.  Samples  imported  in  conformity  with  the  above- 
mentioned  regulations  can  go  all  over  the  Republic,  subject 
to  the  provisions  of  the  Commerce  and  Customs  House 
Regulations. 

The  only  tax  to  be  charged  to  the  travellers  is 
£\  5s.  Od.  per  half-year,  which  must  be  paid  by  the 
agent  to  the  Departmental  Juntas  (Boards)  of  the 
Departments  he  visits. 

The  luggage  of  theatrical  troupes,  circuses,  and  other 
similar  concerns,  will  be  dispatched  by  the  Customs 
Houses  on  presentation  of  a memorial  signed  by  an 
agent  stating  that  he  goes  security  for  the  duties  to  be 


100 


PERU 


collected  on  these  goods,  should  the  importers  not  comply 
with  the  re-exportation  of  the  goods.  The  Customs 
House,  after  recording  the  number  of  bales,  their  weight 
and  contents,  will  value  them  and  charge  1 per  cent,  on 
the  valuation  or  the  equivalent  of  the  duties  corre- 
sponding to  the  Consular  invoice,  which  amount  is  not 
returned  to  the  interested  parties. 

Land  Mortgage  Companies  are  empowered  to  lend  by 
instalments  on  immovables,  and  to  issue  bonds  and 
mortgage  “ cedulas.”  They  must  reserve  50  per  cent, 
of  their  capital  for  the  first  of  these  objects. 

Contracts  of  affreightment,  with  the  usual  particulars, 
must  be  drawn  up  in  duplicate  in  the  charter-party  signed 
by  the  contractors. 

In  addition  to  the  original  bill  of  lading,  four  copies, 
signed  both  by  the  master  of  the  vessel  and  the  con- 
signor, are  required ; one  to  be  kept  by  the  consignor, 
one  by  the  consignee,  one  by  the  master,  and  one  by  the 
managing  owner. 

The  contract  of  marine  insurance  must  be  drawn  and 
signed  in  duplicate,  one  copy  being  kept  by  each  party. 

Full  provision  is  made  for  average,  both  particular  and 
general. 

The  various  terms  fixed  by  the  Code  for  the  limitation 
of  actions  are  absolute. 

Exporters  should  be  careful  to  observe  the  regulations 
for  the  filling  in  of  the  master’s  manifest,  the  bill  of 
health,  and  the  consular  invoices,  to  the  number 
required  by  law.  Regular  charges  and  special  consular 
stamps  are  provided  for  the  due  countersigning  of  all 
such  documents. 


COMMERCIAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  101 


Banks. — The  principal  banking  establishments  of  Peru 
have  their  headquarters  in  Lima,  and  are  as  follows — 

The  Italian  Bank,  founded  in  1889  ; capital,  £200,000. 

The  Bank  of  Peru  and  London,  founded  in  1897  by 
merging  the  branch  of  the  Bank  of  London,  Mexico,  and 
South  America  with  the  Bank  of  Callao ; capital,  £500,000 ; 
has  branches  in  Callao,  Arequipa,  Piura,  Trujillo,  Pacas- 
mayo,  Chiclayo,  lea,  Cuzco,  Cerro  de  Pasco,  and  Iquitos. 

The  German  Transatlantic  Bank;  capital,  £200,000; 
branches  at  Callao  and  Arequipa. 

The  International  Bank  of  Peru  ; capital,  £100,000. 

The  Popular  Bank  ; capital,  £100,000. 

The  Deposits  and  Consignments  Bank ; capital,  £100,000 ; 
foundation  caused  by  a law  requiring  judicial  and  fiscal 
deposits  to  be  made  in  one  institution  ; capital  subscribed 
by  the  other  Lima  banks. 

The  Savings  Bank  of  Lima  (Caja  de  Ahorros  de  la 
Beneficencia) ; capital,  £20,000  ; deposits  over  £200,000. 

Iquitos  has  enjoyed  banking  facilities  only  since  the 
close  of  1911,  when  two  agencies  were  opened.  One, 
mentioned  above,  is  a branch  of  the  Lima  Bank  of  London 
and  Peru  ; the  other,  which  combines  a banking  with  a 
merchant  business,  is  the  Cortes  Commercial  and  Banking 
Co.  The  British  Consul  reports — 

“ The  advent  of  these  institutions  has  been  beneficial  to 
commerce  in  general  by  providing  credit  on  properly  estab- 
lished lines,  and  by  the  introduction  of  the  current  account 
system,  whereby  payment  may  be  made  by  cheque.  This  is 
both  safer  and  less  cumbersome  than  the  old  form  of  payments 
in  gold  and  silver.” 

It  is  a general  feature  of  the  Peruvian  banks  that  the 
gold  reserve  and  cash  balances  held  are  very  considerable. 

8— (2247) 


102 


PERU 


The  emission  of  bank-notes  is  prohibited  by  law.  The 
banks  are  authorised  to  issue  mortgage  bonds  on  landed 
property. 

Public  Health. — Public  health  is  watched  over,  as 
has  already  been  mentioned,  by  the  local  councils,  and 
also  by  medical  officers  of  health,  holding  salaried 
appointments  in  each  province. 

There  is  also  a Supreme  Sanitary  Council  in  the  capital 
of  the  republic,  and  sanitary  councils  in  each  of  the 
departments  and  provinces.  These  have  the  special  duty 
of  taking  precautionary  measures,  including  quarantine, 
against  vessels  coming  from  infected  ports. 

In  the  majority  of  the  capitals  there  are  hospitals,  sup- 
ported by  benevolent  societies,  which  give  free  medical 
aid  to  the  poor. 

Foreigners  are  admitted  into  these  hospitals  and  aided, 
when  necessary,  by  the  benevolent  societies  (for  which, 
see  below). 

In  spite  of  the  above  provision  for  the  safeguarding  of 
public  health,  progress  is  very  slow.  The  lack  of  drain- 
age in  the  older  towns  ( e.g .,  Cuzco)  is  noted  by  every 
traveller.  Arequipa  has  recently  arranged  for  a new 
and  improved  water  supply.  The  Consular  Reports  for 
1912  contain  the  following  notes  on  Lima,  Callao,  and 
Iquitos — 

“ The  sanitary  condition  of  Lima  and  Callao  has  been 
particularly  bad  during  1912.  Never  were  both  towns  in  a 
more  unsatisfactory  condition.  Bubonic  plague  continues 
to  be  virulent,  especially  in  the  north  of  Peru.  There  has 
been  no  yellow  fever.  Enteric  fevers  have  been  prevalent 
as  well  as  small-pox.” 

“It  is  a matter  for  congratulation  that,  in  spite  of  the 


COMMERCIAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  103 

insanitary  conditions  which  obtain  in  the  town  of  Iquitos, 
its  immunity  from  infectious  diseases  since  the  early  part  of 
the  year  has  been  remarkable. 

“ The  Government  recently  made  a contract  with  an  American 
sanitary  expert,  who  is  to  make  a prophylactic  campaign 
throughout  the  town,  and  it  is  therefore  to  be  hoped  that, 
with  the  preventive  measures  thus  taken  and  with  the  support 
of  the  local  authorities,  there  will  not  be  a recurrence  of  the 
yellow  fever  scourge  in  the  form  of  last  year’s  epidemic. 

“ The  sanitary  expert  arrived  on  1 1th  November,  1912,  and  he 
will  work  in  conjunction  with  the  engineers  who  are  to  under- 
take the  drainage  and  general  improvements  of  the  town  in 
accordance  with  the  Government’s  proposed  scheme,  which 
was  authorised  by  Congress  on  11th  November,  1911. 

“ The  Bill  provides  for  the  issue  of  a loan  of  /200,000  (Peru- 
vian), to  be  issued  at  92  per  cent.,  and  at  8 per  cent,  interest 
and  sinking  fund.  The  proceeds  of  the  loan  are  to  be  devoted 
to  the  sanitation  of  the  town  of  Iquitos. 

" In  this  connection,  two  American  engineers  have  been 
contracted  by  the  Peruvian  Government,  and  these  are  at 
present  engaged  on  the  studies  in  connection  with  the  scheme  ; 
but  up  to  the  time  of  writing  there  are  no  indications  of  the 
actual  work  being  commenced.” 

Languages. — The  language  of  the  Peruvian  of  Spanish 
descent,  and  of  the  Mestizos,  or  mixed  Spanish  and  native 
blood,  is,  of  course,  Spanish.  The  Cholo  population  of 
the  sierra  region,  while  using  a certain  amount  of  Spanish 
in  their  intercourse  with  the  two  classes  just  mentioned, 
speak  among  themselves  their  two  dialects  of  Quichua 
and  Aymara.  The  diverse  wild  Indian  tribes  of  the 
montana  speak  each  its  own  dialect.  English  and  French 
are  very  generally  known  among  the  educated  classes 
and  the  former  is  taught  in  the  higher  schools.  It  is  a 
commonplace,  but  cannot  be  too  often  repeated,  that 
English  traders,  in  competition  with  other  mercantile 
nations,  would  do  well  in  their  advertisements,  samples, 


104 


PERU 


and  exported  goods  to  adopt  Spanish  nomenclature  and 
the  metric  system. 

Education. — Peru  possesses  four  universities  those 
of  Lima,  Cuzco,  Arequipa,  and  Trujillo.  That  of  Lima, 
the  Universidad  de  San  Marcos,  originated  in  a grant  made 
in  1551  by  Charles  V to  the  Dominicans.  It  has  faculties 
of  jurisprudence,  literature,  medicine,  political  science, 
and  theology.  That  of  Cuzco  was  founded  in  1598,  and 
that  of  Arequipa  in  1616. 

Lima  possesses  a School  of  Mines  and  Civil  Engineering, 
founded  in  1874  ; a National  School  of  Agriculture  ; a 
School  of  Arts  and  Trades.  There  is  a Naval  School  at 
Callao  ; and  a Military  Academy,  under  the  direction  of 
French  officers,  at  Chorrillos. 

There  are  nine  episcopal  seminaries,  one  for  each 
diocese.  The  principal  towns  contain  private  secondary 
schools,  many  under  the  direction  of  English,  German, 
and  Italian  staffs  ; and  also  twenty-four  national  colleges 
for  boys  and  three  for  girls,  with  foreign  teachers. 

Elementary  education  is,  by  law,  compulsory  for  both 
sexes,  and  is  free  in  the  public  schools  provided  by  the 
municipalities.  There  are  upwards  of  2,000  primary 
schools  and  2,750  teachers.  It  is  stated  that  the  number 
of  pupils  in  these,  in  1911,  was  146,400,  while  the  number 
that  ought  to  have  attended  was  407,987. 

There  is  a reformatory  for  juvenile  offenders. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  professional  and  academical 
needs  of  the  upper  and  middle  classes  are  fairly  well  met ; 
but  that  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  is  still  extremely 
high,  and  that  very  much  remains  to  be  done  for  the 
poorer  classes  of  the  community. 


School  of  Arts  and  Crafts,  Lima 


COMMERCIAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  105 


The  amount  spent  on  education  has,  like  most  of  the 
items  in  the  Budget,  increased  vastly  in  recent  years, 
rising  from  £29,000  in  1894  to  £306,500  in  1912.  The 
totals  expended  in  the  last  six  years  were — 

£ 

1907  289,087 

1908  314,738 

1909  288,235 

1910  263,373 

1911  269,482 

1912  306,598 

The  present  Government 1 announce  its  determination 
to  remove  all  obstacles  to  the  effective  diffusion  of 
primary  instruction  throughout  the  republic  ; to  create 
new  schools  ; to  found  night  schools  ; and  to  give  more 
attention  to  the  teaching  of  practical  arts. 

In  accordance  with  this  announcement,  it  estab- 
lished at  Magdalena,  a Domestic  Training  School  for 
300  poor  girls,  of  whom  200  are  to  be  brought  from  the 
provinces  ; and  it  is  intended  to  add  to  the  curriculum 
of  the  girls’  schools  in  the  provincial  capitals,  a complete 
course  of  training  in  the  domestic  arts,  and  to  that  of 
the  boys’  elementary  schools  courses  of  practical  work 
in  carpentry,  metal-working,  etc. 

Institutions  and  Charities. — The  universities  and 
schools  have  been  mentioned  under  Education,  and  the 
Church  organisation  under  Religion.  The  other  learned 
institutions,  with  the  exception  of  the  meteorological 
stations  and  observatory  at  Arequipa,  are  practically  all 
centred  in  Lima.  The  following  are  prominent — 

The  National  Library,  founded  in  1822,  ruined  in  1881 
1 i.e.,  under  Pres.  Billinghurst. 


106 


PERU 


by  its  occupation  as  a cavalry  barracks  by  the  Chileans, 
but  later  re-formed  under  Ricardo  Palma. 

The  Geographical  Society,  founded  in  1888,  and  sub- 
sidised by  Government.  It  issues  valuable  bulletins 
quarterly. 

The  Athenaeum,  a literary  institution,  founded  in  1877. 

The  Historical  Institute,  which  investigates  the  pre- 
historic archaeology  of  Peru,  as  well  as  the  strictly 
historic  periods  ; it  possesses  a museum. 

The  Society  of  Engineers,  with  large  library. 

National  Societies  of  Industry,  of  Mining,  of 
Agriculture,  and  of  Medicine. 

Among  commercial  institutions,  the  Lima  Chamber  of 
Commerce  and  the  Stock  Exchange  should  be  mentioned  ; 
and  among  Government  institutions,  not  elsewhere 
named,  the  flourishing  Mint. 

Charities. — Charity,  as  an  item  of  the  annual  Budget, 
was  formerly  administered  by  the  department  of 
“ Fomento,”  but  is  now  under  the  Ministry  of 
j ustice  ; about  £8,000  is  expended  annually. 

Apart  from  this,  there  are  some  forty-five  or  fifty 
benevolent  institutions  throughout  the  country,  with 
revenues  aggregating  about  £230,000.  They  are  found 
in  the  principal  cities,  and  are  administered  by  special 
boards.  The  largest  of  these  is  the  Lima  Benevolent 
Society,  which  maintains  three  hospitals.  Other  hospitals 
are  maintained  from  private  sources  ; and  some,  with 
prisons,  asylums,  and  the  great  Penitentiary  of  Lima,  by 
the  Government. 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals. — The  leading  daily 
papers  of  Peru  are  issued  at  Lima  ; but  most  of  the 


COMMERCIAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  107 


other  leading  cities  ( e.g .,  Arequipa,  Trujillo,  Cuzco,  and 
Iquitos)  possess  daily  and  weekly  papers.  The  total 
number  is  about  200.  In  Lima,  the  foremost  newspaper 
is  El  Comercio,  a progressive  and  enlightened  organ. 
La  Prensa,  issuing  morning  and  evening  editions,  ranks 
next.  Both  have  illustrated  Sunday  editions.  Of  the 
other  Lima  dailies,  La  Opinion  Nacional  is  perhaps  the 
most  prominent.  There  are  two  important  illustrated 
weekly  papers  ; and  El  Agricultor  Peruano,  the  organ 
of  the  National  Society  of  Agriculture,  is  also  issued 
weekly.  There  are  a number  of  monthly  publications, 
representing  the  various  scientific,  professional,  and  com- 
mercial institutions,  of  which  the  following  deserve  men- 
tion : — The  Boletin  de  Fomento,  the  Boletin  de  la  Soc.  de 
Ingenieros,  the  Boletin  del  Cuerpode  Ing.  de  Caminos,  and 
Minas  Ind.  y Construcc. 

Labour. — The  following  notes  on  labour  conditions  in 
1912  are  quoted  from  the  British  Consular  Report — 

“ Chiefly  owing  to  political  causes  the  latter  part  of  1912 
has  been  agitated  by  labour  troubles,  the  demand  being  for 
an  eight-hour  day  and  an  increase  in  wages. 

“ The  demand  was  made  and  immediately  followed  by  a 
strike  in  Callao  on  the  part  of  the  dock  and  wharf  labourers 
and  others  engaged  in  the  loading  and  unloading  of  ships. 
The  result  was  a victory  for  the  men.  As  it  was,  the  men, 
prior  to  their  recent  demand,  only  worked  eight  hours  effective 
labour,  although  supposed  to  be  working  ten  hours.  The 
hands  in  the  flour  mills,  bakeries,  iron  foundries  and  machine 
shops  followed  suit,  and  although  the  strike  did  not  extend  to 
Lima,  the  Callao  strikers  were  assisted  by  their  fellow-workers 
in  the  capital  by  funds  and  donations. 

“ The  time  taken  for  the  realisation  of  these  demands  seems 
inopportune.  Peru  was  beginning  to  recover  from  the  want 
of  confidence  resulting  from  a long  period  of  political  unrest, 
both  as  to  internal  and  external  affairs,  an  improvement  in  the 


108 


PERU 


market  price  of  staple  Peruvian  products  had  begun  to  sti- 
mulate trade,  and  merchants  were  recovering  from  the  over- 
stocking of  the  market  as  a result  of  the  over-buying  of  1907, 
when  there  was  a set-back  caused  by  the  demands  of  labour 
for  an  eight -hour  day  as  well  as  a 30  per  cent,  increase  on 
existing  wages.  Few  of  the  business  houses  can  meet  the  rise 
in  cost  of  production  which  such  an  increase  in  their  general 
expenses  portends,  and  as  it  affects  all  trades  it  means  a general 
increase  in  the  cost  of  materials  as  well  as  of  labour,  which 
may  end  in  killing  some  of  the  new  industries  carefully  fostered 
by  artificial  methods,  besides  throwing  out  all  provisions  as  to 
contracts  and  other  agreements  entered  upon  previous  to  the 
demands  of  the  men.  On  the  other  hand,  masters  admitted 
that,  owing  to  the  increased  cost  of  living  and  rise  in  rents,  a 
readjustment  of  wages  was  bound  to  come,  and  it  is  to  be 
regretted  that  in  the  readjustment  wiser  councils  have  not 
prevailed,  for  in  those  cases  in  which  the  industries  will  not 
be  able  to  meet  the  new  charges,  many  factories  and  workshops 
will  have  to  close  down,  thereby  throwing  a number  of  men 
out  of  work.  The  singular  feature  of  labour  in  Peruvian  coast 
towns  is,  that  although  the  country  is  canvassing  in  Europe 
for  immigrants,  there  is  not  enough  work  available  to  keep  the 
existing  working  population  adequately  employed. 

“ Agricultural  Labour. — The  sugar  plantations  in  the 
coastal  valleys  employ  some  17,000  hands  at  an  average  wage 
of  3s.  per  diem.  Work,  however,  on  these  plantations  is  not 
suitable  to  Europeans  and  is  carried  on  by  natives  or  descend- 
ants of  African  negro  slaves  and  of  Chinese  coolies,  and  in 
recent  years  by  imported  Japanese  labour.” 

Immigration. — Immigration  is  very  slight,  and  it  can- 
not be  said  that  Peru  offers  a favourable  field  for  the 
European  immigrant  of  small  means.  His  physique  is 
unsuited  for  the  labour  conditions  of  the  coast  valleys ; 
the  labourers  imported  in  this  part  of  Peru  at  different 
times  have  been  negroes,  Chinese,  and  Japanese.  The 
rarefied  atmosphere  of  the  high  sierra,  and  the  tropical 
heat  of  the  low-lying  montana,  are  equally  unsuitable. 


COMMERCIAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  109 


There  remains  the  higher  parts  of  the  Montana  as  it  rises 
towards  the  Andes.  Here  a field  for  immigration  may 
be  found  ; but  the  means  of  transit  and  transport  must 
first  be  developed,  and  much  capital  must  be  sunk  and 
pioneer  work  accomplished. 


CHAPTER  IX 

INLAND  COMMUNICATION  AND  TRANSPORT 

Inland  communication  in  Peru  may  be  classified  under 
the  three  heads  of  roads,  railways,  and  waterways. 

Roads. — Of  the  roads  it  may  almost  be  said,  as  of  the 
snakes  in  Ireland,  that  there  are  none  ; and  of  the  coast 
district  an  Irish  writer  might  be  expected  to  state  that 
the  “ inland  ” communication  is  conducted  by  sea. 
Thus,  between  Cajamarca  and  Huancayo,  or  Cuzco,  the 
inevitable  route  would  be  by  railway  to  the  coast  at 
Pacasmayo,  then  by  sea  (to  Callao  or  Mollendo 
respectively),  and  finally  by  railway  again. 

Great  trunk  roads,  one  in  the  coast  zone  and  one  on  the 
plateau  from  Cuzco  to  Quito  in  Ecuador,  were  made  and 
maintained  by  the  Incas  ; but  the  glowing  accounts  of 
those  roads  by  early  Spanish  writers  appear  to  be  full  of 
exaggeration.  The  Incas  had  no  horses,  mules,  or 
wheeled  vehicles  ; their  roads  were,  therefore,  designed 
for  foot  passengers,  and  might  be  perhaps  better  described 
as  “ trails.”  Their  method  of  crossing  ravines  by  suspen- 
sion bridges  constructed  of  osiers  and  prairie  grass  has, 
however,  survived  to  this  day.  But  the  Inca  roads,  such 
as  they  were,  were  neglected  by  their  conquerors  ; trans- 
port was  entirely  conducted  by  means  of  mules  and 
llamas  ; and  no  new  roads,  strictly  so-called,  were  made. 
It  has  been  said  that  in  South  America,  railways  came 
before  roads,  and  it  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  Peru. 
This  arose  partly  from  the  phenomenal  difficulties 
presented  by  the  physical  nature  of  the  country,  but  partly, 

no 


COMMUNICATION  AND  TRANSPORT  111 


too,  from  poverty,  administrative  corruption,  and  lack 
of  enterprise.  The  cross-country  roads  are,  in  general, 
nothing  but  “ steep,  ill-made  pack-mule  trails.” 

To-day  this  state  of  things  is  being  remedied.  The 
Government  is  alive  to  the  importance  of  developing  the 
country  by  means  of  roads  as  well  as  railways,  and  is 
encouraging  road-making  both  directly  and  indirectly. 
Thus  they  have  built  and  maintained  the  “ Central  route  ” 
to  the  Montana  from  Oroya,  through  Tarma,  to  Puerto 
Bermudez  on  the  Pichis  river  ; and  concessions  of  land 
are  generally  only  granted  on  condition  of  building  roads 
or  railways  in  the  district.  Thus  the  road  from  Tiripata 
via  Cruceros  to  the  Montana  has  been  built  by  an 
American  mining  company.  The  old  “ Northern  route  ” 
to  Iquitos  should  also  be  mentioned.  It  is  from 
Pacasmayo  via  Cajamarca,  Chachapoyas,  and  Yurim- 
aguas  on  the  Huallaga,  and  is  often  preferred  to  the 
Central  route  between  May  and  November. 

The  chief  carriage  road  in  Peru  is  from  Sicuani  to 
Cuzco,  a distance  of  90  miles.  There  is  also  a short  one 
between  Trujillo  and  the  port  of  Huanchaco.  With 
these  exceptions,  roads  are  practically  non-existent. 
But  there  are  numerous  parts  where  the  lie  of  the 
country  invites  the  building  of  roads  to  link  up  towns  of 
considerable  size  ; and  with  the  high  perfection  to  which 
motor  construction  has  now  been  brought,  it  is  important 
that  this  should  now  be  done. 

The  following  itinerary 1 explains  in  detail  the  mode  of 
travelling  from  Lima  to  Iquitos  by  the  usual  “ Central  ” 
or  Pichis  route — 

1 Taken  from  an  official  Immigrants’  Guide  to  Peru,  1902. 


Itinerary  of  the  Journey  from  Lima  to  Iquitos  by  the  Central  Railway 


There  are  2,044  kilometres,  which  can  be  traversed  in  17  days,  in  going  from  Lima  to  Iquitos. 
The  return,  owing  to  the  river  current,  requires  five  days  more. 


COMMUNICATION  AND  TRANSPORT  113 


Tarma.  The  journey  from  Callao  to  La  Oroya  (220 
kiloms.)  can  be  accomplished  in  a day.  Proceeding  on 
his  way  for  three  hours  more,  by  road,  the  traveller 
reaches  Tarma,  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Junin,  with  a population  of  10,000  inhabitants, 
colleges,  schools  for  elementary  education,  and  resources 
of  every  kind. 

At  78  kilometres  from  Tarma,  and  united  by  a good 
road  which  can  be  traversed  in  ten  or  twelve  hours, 
the  fertile  valley  of  Chanchamayo  is  gained,  where, 
properly  speaking,  the  Montana  zone  begins,  and 
vegetation  assumes  an  aspect  of  surprising  exuberance. 

In  this  valley  are  to  be  found  valuable  plantations  of 
sugar-cane,  cacao,  and  coffee,  with  their  dwelling-houses 
and  machinery — plantations  that  to-day  constitute  the 
fortune  and  wealth  of  a number  of  families  which,  not 
many  years  ago,  settled  in  the  Montana  region,  with- 
out other  capital  than  their  integrity  and  devotion  to 
industry. 

La  Merced.  The  town  of  La  Merced  owes  its  existence 
to  the  development  of  Chanchamayo.  It  is  situated  in 
the  valley  of  that  name,  and  has  an  almost  cosmopolitan 
population  of  about  600  inhabitants.  It  is  of  necessity 
the  centre  for  commercial  transactions  in  the  products  of 
the  neighbouring  plantations. 

Its  local  affairs  are  under  the  control  of  a municipal 
council,  which  provides  primary  schools,  and  for  the 
public  security  there  are  a Commissary  and  a police  force. 

San  Luis  de  Shuaro.  At  30  kilometres  from  La  Merced 
is  the  town  of  San  Luis  de  Shuaro,  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  of  that  name  and  the  Rio  Paucartambo.  Its  sole 


114 


PERU 


importance  is  due  to  the  fact  of  its  marking  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Pichis  highway,  and  to  its  being  surrounded 
by  coffee  plantations.  Nevertheless,  it  offers  some 
accommodation  to  the  traveller. 

***** 

The  Pichis  highway  has  a length  of  221  kilometres, 
with  a 5 per  cent,  gradient,  as  far  as  Puerto  Bermudez, 
which  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Pichis 
and  Chivis. 

Puerto  Bermudez  has  a Commissary  and  a garrison 
of  gendarmes ; it  is  separated  from  Iquitos  by  the 
courses  of  the  Rivers  Pichis,  Pachitea,  Lower  Ucayali, 
and  a part  of  the  Amazon,  that  is  to  say,  by  a distance 
of  1,000  miles,  which  is  traversed  by  the  launches  of  the 
State  in  ten  days  down  stream,  and  in  twelve  days  up 
stream.  Thus  the  products  from  the  areas  contiguous 
to  the  Central  highway  can  be  exported,  following  the 
river  route  towards  the  Atlantic,  and  overland  towards 
the  Pacific. 

The  Government  maintains,  at  the  unpopulated  points 
of  the  transit,  homes  or  shelters  ( tambos ) for  the  accom- 
modation of  passengers.  These  are  separated  from  each 
other  at  a distance  corresponding  to  that  which  a traveller 
can  cover  in  a day,  as  on  next  page. 

Railways. — Though  there  is  a fairly  long  list  of  rail- 
way lines  in  Peru,  the  total  length  is  only  about  1,728 
miles.  The  Andes  run  parallel  with  the  coast  at  a dis- 
tance of  about  80  miles  ; and  most  of  the  lines  are,  there- 
fore, short  railways  constructed  to  develop  the  products 
of  particular  valleys,  and  carry  them  down  to  the  port 
at  the  river-mouth,  where  there  is  usually  a railway  pier. 


Places  of  Refreshment  on  the  Pichis  Highway 


& 

5 

< 

H 


081  *^31 
4dnss9A 


£81  ’mx 

imr['Bi[oncj 


'8H  raX 

'nzidnzy 


‘831  *^X 
'spiooift  u'ec; 


'Oil  *uiX 
'sopreQ  u^s 


86  -u*X 

'soyeS^pj 


'LL  '^X 

^siA'Bipg 


’008-08  >UIX 
''ezu'e.iodsg 


88  nr 9 

'pnps 


’008-03  ,aiX 

'z'edBi'j 


o 

cn 


o 

cn 


o 

CD 


o 

CD 


a; 

o 

CD 


CJ 

o 

CD 


o 

cd 


o 

CO 


JU 

o 

CO 


000 

COC^M 


o o 

ID  lO 


OOO 
CO  <N  <N 


o o 
10  to 


OOO 
CO  !— 1 *— < 


o o 
10  10 


O — ^OO' 


OOO 
CO  O O 


o o 

10  10 


OOO 
CO  o o 


o o 
10  10 


O 1 o o 


OOO 
CO  o o 


o o 
10  10 


OOO 
CO  O'  o 


o o 

10  LO 


O'  1—  T-*  o o 


OOO 
CO  00  00 


o o 
10  ID 


00000 


OOO 

:o  r-  t> 


o o 
10  10 


OOO 


OOO 
CO  CD  CD 


o o 
10  ID 


00000 


. . . .£> 

• • • . 0 

£ 
c 
«- 

+J  o 

Cfl  • • 

CS  • • , 

•+-*  u c3  lr! 
<d  •-  ii 
O C SD'C 
ogc'O^ 
u 3 •-  O O 


3 

>-) 

CS 

aJ 

CO 


o 


c3 

a 

o 

»H 

o 

P, 

o 

Oh 

0 

'V 

a 


< 

K W 
H H 
X O 

w £ 


■Lunch  and  dinner  consist  of  two  or  three  dishes. 


116 


PERU 


One  result  of  this  independent  construction  is  the  variety 
of  gauges  employed.  The  two  big  railways  and  a few 
others  have  the  “ normal  ” (English)  gauge  of  4 ft.  8£  in. 
(=  1-45  metres) ; others  have  a “ metre  gauge  ” ; or  3 ft. 
(=  0-91  metre);  or  still  narrower  ones.  The  two  lines 
which  scale  the  Andes — the  Central  and  the  Southern — 
are  described  in  some  detail  below.  In  the  following 
table  the  railways  are  named  in  order  from  north  to 
south  ; those  marked  with  an  * are  State  railways,  at 
present  controlled  by  the  Peruvian  Corporation.  (For 
this  body,  see  Chapter  on  Finance.) 


Name  of  Railway. 

Built. 

Gauge. 

Length. 

1.  Tumbes — Puerto  Pizarro  .. 

1907 

0-75m. 

11 -00km. 

*2.  Paita — Piura 

1884 

1-45 

97-00 

3.  Piura — Catacaos 

1888 

0-75 

10-65 

4.  Bayovar — Reventazon 

1904 

1-00 

45-00 

5.  Eten — Ferrenafe 

1871 

1-45 

43-10 

6.  Pimentel — Chiclayo 

1873 

0-91 

24-14 

7.  Chiclayo — Patapo 

1871 

1-45 

24-00 

8.  Eten — Cayalti 

1904 

0-60 

37-00 

*9.  Pacasmayo — Chilete  ) . . 

1876  and 

1-45 

195-00 

,,  — Guadalupe) 

*10.  Salaverry — Ascope 

later 

1875 

0-91 

76-00 

1 1 . Huanchaco — Tres  Palos 

1898 

0-91 

68-00 

(Roma) 

12.  Chicama — Pampas 

1898 

0-91 

45-00 

*13.  Trujillo — Menocucho 

1896, 1905  0-91 

26-00 

*14.  Chimbote — Tablones 

1872 

100 

57-00 

15.  Supe — Barranca  (Pativilca) 

1902 

0-60 

12-20 

16.  Pativilca — Paramonga 

1903 

0-60 

8-0 

17.  Supe— San  Nicolds  . . 

1899 

1-00 

6-00 

18.  North  Western  Railway, 
Sayan  — Huacho  and 

Huacho- Ancon  . . 

1911 

0-91 

205-00 

19.  Playa  Chica — Salinas  de 

Huacho 

1876 

1-00 

10-00 

20.  Chancay — Palpa 

1877 

1-00 

25-00 

*21.  Lima — Ancon 

1869 

1-45 

38-00 

*22.  Central  Railway 

1870,18931-45 

372-00 

23.  Casapalca — El  Carmen 

1901 

0-60 

5-00 

COMMUNICATION  AND  TRANSPORT  117 


Name  of  Railway. 

Built. 

Gauge. 

Length. 

24.  La  Oroya — Cerro  de  Pacco. . 

25.  Cerro  de  Pasco  — Goyllaris- 

1904 

1-45 

131-00 

quizga 

1905 

1-45 

43-00 

26.  Lima — Callao 

1851 

1 -45 

14-00 

27.  Lima — Chorrillos 

1858 

1-45 

12-00 

28.  ,,  

1904 

1-45 

13-00 

29.  Lima — Magdalena  del  Mar 

1902 

1-45 

8-00 

30.  Callao — La  Punta 

1872 

1-45 

3-00 

31.  Lima — Callao — La  Punta  .. 

1904 

1-45 

15-00 

32.  Lima — Herrodura 

1901 

1-45 

17-00 

33.  Callao — Bellavista  . . 

1897 

1-45 

3-00 

34.  Cerro  Azul — Cafiete 

35.  Tambo  de  Mora — Chincha 

1870 

0-91 

10-00 

Alta 

1898 

POO 

12-00 

*36.  Pisco — lea 

1869 

1-45 

74-00 

*37.  Southern  Railway  . . 

1869-1912 

1-45 

863-00 

*38.  Ho — Moquegua 

1908 

1-45 

100-00 

Central  Railway  of  Peru. 

This  railway, 

which  is 

among  the  most  remarkable  in  the  world,  runs  from 
Callao,  through  Lima,  up  the  valley  of  the  Rimac,  and 
pierces  the  Andes  by  the  Galera  tunnel  at  a height  of 
15,645  ft.  It  then  descends  to  12,180  ft.  at  La  Oroya. 
At  La  Oroya  it  turns  to  the  south-east,  and  follows  the 
Mantaro  valley  to  Huancayo.  The  length  from  Callao 
to  La  Oroya  is  222  kilometres,  and  thence  to  Huancayo 
(123  kiloms.).  It  is  proposed  to  carry  it  eventually  via 
Ayacucho  to  Cuzco,  where  it  will  link  on  to  the  Southern 
Railway. 

Its  construction  was  begun  under  contract  with  the 
Government,  in  1869,  by  the  American  contractor,  Henry 
Meiggs,  and  it  was  opened  as  far  as  San  Bartolome 
(76  kiloms.)  in  September,  1871.  The  latter  portion  of 
the  line  was  delayed  by  Meiggs’s  death  in  1877,  by 
financial  difficulties,  and  by  the  war  with  Chile,  and  was 
only  completed  by  the  Peruvian  Corporation.  La  Oroya 

»— <2347) 


118 


PERU 


was  reached  in  January,  1893,  Huari  in  1906,  and 
Huancayo  in  1908. 

The  branches  are  (1)  from  Lima  to  Ancon  (38  kiloms.) ; 
(2)  Ticlis  to  Morococha  (14-650  kiloms.) ; (3)  Tambo  to 
La  Jauja  (7  kiloms.).  (The  branch  from  Casapalca  to 
El  Carmen  (5  kiloms.)  is  a private  mineral  line.)  The 
line  from  La  Oroya  to  Cerro  de  Pasco  does  not  belong  to 
the  Central  Railway,  but  to  the  American  Cerro  de  Pasco 
Railway  & Mining  Co. 

The  cost  of  construction  has  been,  in  all  cases,  very 
high,  but  in  the  section  to  La  Oroya,  stupendous  ; it  has 
been  calculated  at  £12,431  per  kilometre.  The  short 
Morococha  branch  reaches  a height  of  16,865  ft., 
surpassing  that  of  the  Galera  tunnel  by  1,200  ft. 

The  line  mounts  the  sierra  by  a series  of  zigzags  and 
horseshoe  loops  ; the  gradients  are  sometimes  as  steep 
as  4 in  100,  and  there  are  numerous  bridges,  viaducts, 
and  tunnels.  At  the  Infernillo,  the  train  issues  from  one 
tunnel,  crosses  a precipitous  ravine,  and  passes  into 
another  tunnel  on  the  further  side.  The  zigzags  number 
17  and  the  tunnels  63.  As  might  be  expected,  the 
upkeep  of  the  line  is  also  expensive. 

Southern  Railway  of  Peru.  The  Southern  Railway, 
though  less  audacious  in  conception,  is  also  a fine  piece 
of  engineering.  The  section  from  Mollendo  to  Puno  was 
built  in  1869-76.  The  only  tunnel  is  just  north  of 
Arequipa.  The  Andes  are  crossed  at  Crucero  Alto  at  a 
height  of  14,660  ft.  The  line  passes  through  Arequipa 
to  Juliaca,  near  the  north-west  end  of  Lake  Titicaca. 
Thence  one  branch  runs  south  to  Puno,  and  another 
north-west  to  Cuzco.  The  section  Juliaca  to  Santa  Rosa 


Galera  Junction,  Oroya  Railway 


COMMUNICATION  AND  TRANSPORT  119 


was  completed  by  1877  ; that  to  Marangani  was  opened 
in  1892,  to  Sicuani  in  1893,  to  Checcacupe  in  1907,  and 
to  Cuzco  in  1909. 

Note. — Arica — La  Paz  Railway.  The  approaching  opening  of 
this  line  will  have  an  adverse  effect  on  the  trade  of  Mollendo,  and 
will  eventually  divert  the  Bolivian  traffic.  It  will  offer  a saving 
of  time — one  day  instead  of  over  three  ; and  it  will  avoid 
the  double  transhipment  of  cargo  at  Puno  and  Guaqui. 

Projected  Railways. — These  are  numerous ; the 
most  important  schemes  are  (1)  the  Longitudinal  line; 
(2)  the  Pan-American  line  ; (3)  Montana  lines. 

(1)  The  Longitudinal  line  means  the  linking  up  of  the 
short,  isolated  lines  of  the  coast  by  a series  of  connecting 
lines  running  north  and  south.  The  line  already  open 
from  Lima  to  Huacho  is  one  link  in  such  a chain. 

(2)  The  Pan-American  line  would  enter  Peru  from 
Ecuador  across  the  river  Chanchis  and,  like  the  great 
trunk  road  of  the  Incas,  would  traverse  the  high  inter - 
Andine  region  to  Lake  Titicaca,  passing  Jaen,  Cajamarca, 
Cerro  de  Pasco,  Oroya,  Huancayo,  Ayacucho,  Cuzco,  and 
Puno  ; it  would  enter  Bolivia  at  or  near  Desaguadero. 
The  section  from  Cerro  de  Pasco  to  Huancayo,  and  that 
from  Cuzco  to  Puno,  are  already  in  existence  ; and 
extensions  of  these  will  undoubtedly  be  made  in  the  near 
future,  though  the  project  in  its  entirety  will  not  be 
realised  for  many  years. 

The  Chimbote-Tablones  line  will  probably  be  carried 
into  the  inter-Andine  region  before  long  via  Huaras  and 
Recuay. 

(3)  Montana  Lines.  Three  main  schemes  are  under 
consideration  to  join  the  coast  with  the  Montana  : (a) 
From  the  port  of  Paita  via  Piura  and  Ja£n  to  Limon  or 


120 


PERU 


some  other  point  below  the  Pongo  de  Manseriche,  on  the 
Maranon.  This  route  would  cross  the  Andes  at  about 
6,600  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  would  be  both  the  cheapest 
to  construct  and  the  most  economically  profitable. 
Unfortunately,  it  lies  near  the  frontier  of  Ecuador,  and 
for  the  present,  political  and  strategic  reasons  appear  to 
prevent  its  realisation.  ( b ) From  a suitable  point  on  the 
Oroya-Cerro  de  Pasco  line  to  a port  on  the  Lower 
Ucayali,  such  as  Pucalpa  or  Port  Cumaria.  Though  the 
present  line  scales  the  Andes,  the  distance  to  the  Ucayali 
is  very  great.  An  alternative  is  from  Oroya  down  the 
Perene  valley  to  Puerto  Wertheman.  (c)  In  the  south  of 
the  country  there  is  a scheme  to  build  a railway  from 
Tirapata  on  the  J uliaca-Cuzco  line  to  a port  on  the 
Inambari.  Traffic  would  then  pass  down  this  river  to 
the  Madre  de  Dios  and  so  to  the  Madeira  and  Amazon. 
This  scheme  would  open  up  the  new  Madre  de  Dios 
Department.  Another  practicable  scheme  is  to  join 
Cuzco  with  Santa  Ana  by  either  a light  or  a 
normal-gauge  railway. 

Waterways. — Lake  Titicaca.  The  Peruvian  Corpora- 
tion run  a line  of  steamers  on  the  lake,  connecting  the 
Southern  Railway  of  Peru  at  Puno  with  the  Guaqui- 
La  Paz  railway  of  Bolivia.  The  steamers  also  ply  on  the 
river  Desaguadero. 

Navigable  Rivers. — The  navigable  rivers  of  Eastern 
Peru  may  be  treated  under  two  heads  : (1)  the  Maranon 
or  Upper  Amazon  and  its  head  waters,  flowing  south-east 
from  Ecuador  and  Colombia,  and  in  a northerly  direction 
from  Peru  ; and  (2)  those  which  flow  east  into  Brazil, 
joining  the  Amazon  much  lower  down  : of  these,  the 


COMMUNICATION  AND  TRANSPORT  121 


Madre  de  Dios  and  its  tributaries  form  the  chief  Peruvian 
system. 

The  Amazon  is  navigable  for  steamers  of  20-ft.  draught 
up  to  Iquitos,  and  the  Maranon  for  those  of  4 to  8-ft. 
draught  to  Puerto  Limon,  and  for  those  of  2 to  4-ft.  draught 
to  the  rapids  or  Pongo  of  Manseriche,  or  about  1,000  miles 
in  all.  It  receives  from  the  north  the  rivers  Putumayo, 
Napo,  Tigre,  Pastasa,  Morona,  and  Santiago,  portions  of 
which  flow  through  Peruvian  territory  and  are  navigable 
for  steamers  of  4 to  8-ft.  draught.  From  the  south  it 
receives  the  Javary,  the  Ucayali,  and  the  Huallaga.  The 
Javary  is  navigable  for  the  larger  steamers  to  Galvez  and 
for  the  smaller  to  Paisandu.  The  Ucayali  has  numerous 
important  affluents,  including  {a)  the  Pachitea  and  Pichis  ; 
( b ) the  Tambo,  Perene,  Ene,  Mantaro,  and  Apurimac  ; 
and  (c)  the  Urubamba  and  Vilcanota.  The  large  steamers 
can  ascend  the  whole  of  the  lower  Ucayali,  including  the 
ports  of  Contamana,  Cumaria,  San  Jeronimo,  and  Masisea, 
and  the  Pachitea  to  Puerto  Victoria  ; the  smaller  steamers 
ascend  the  Pichis  to  Puerto  Bermudez,  the  Upper  Ucayali, 
the  Urubamba  to  the  Mishagua,  the  Tambo  and  the 
Perene  to  the  Pangoa  confluence. 

The  Huallaga  is  navigable  for  the  larger  steamers  up 
to  Yurimaguas  and  for  the  smaller  to  Achinimisa. 

The  above  limits  are  for  high  water  ; in  the  low-water 
periods  the  limits  are,  of  course,  less.  The  southern 
rivers  are  low  in  August  and  September,  while  those 
which  enter  the  Amazon  from  the  north  are  low  in 
February  and  March. 

The  Madre  de  Dios  is  navigable  for  small-draught 
steamers  up  to  the  confluence  of  the  Manu. 


122 


PERU 


By  means  of  canoes,  these  limits  are  indefinitely 
extended,  while  for  down-stream  journeys,  rafts  are  also 
employed.  The  absence  of  roads  and  railways  is  largely 
counterbalanced  in  East  Peru  by  this  wonderful  system 
of  natural  waterways,  amounting  to  considerably  over 
10,000  miles. 


The  Docks,  Callao 


CHAPTER  X 


PORTS  AND  HARBOURS 

In  the  matter  of  harbours,  Peru  is  poorly  served,  for  the 
character  of  the  coast  is  such  that  there  are  no  great 
natural  harbours  like  the  Bay  of  Rio  and  the  Plate 
estuary  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Continent  ; and  such 
anchorages  as  the  Peruvian  coast  affords  are  rendered 
difficult  by  the  Pacific  swell,  which  at  some  seasons  of 
the  year  is  so  violent  as  to  render  shipment  impossible. 

Callao  and  the  Southern  Ports. — The  principal 
port  and  centre  of  shipping  interest  is  Callao,  through 
which  about  a third  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the  country 
passes.  It  is  situated  in  lat.  S.  12°  3',  on  Callao  Bay,  a 
natural  inlet,  or  rather  curve  of  the  coast,  between  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Rimac  and  La  Punta,  a narrow 
promontory  jutting  out  to  the  south-west.  The  bay 
is  still  further  sheltered  from  the  south-west  by  the 
island  of  San  Lorenzo,  which,  about  4\  miles  in  length, 
rises  over  1,200  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  lies  about  four  miles 
distant  from  the  mainland.  La  Punta,  the  promontory 
reaching  out  from  the  mainland  towards  San  Lorenzo, 
is  known  at  its  extremity  as  Camotal  Bank. 

The  town,  together  with  the  castle  and  forts,  extends 
about  two  miles  along  the  beach  fronting  the  bay,  and, 
rising  gradually  from  the  shore,  presents  probably  the 
best  appearance  of  any  of  the  coast  towns  of  Peru. 
The  bay  is  safe  for  vessels  of  any  tonnage,  and  has  a 
depth  of  3£  fathoms  close  to  the  coast.  Heavy  rollers 

123 


124 


PERU 


are  sometimes  experienced,  but  landing  is  seldom  inter- 
rupted at  any  of  the  piers.  There  are  several  piers  with 
wharves,  alongside  which  vessels  may  lie  to  discharge 
and  load  ; the  Customs  basin  has  a minimum  depth  of 
23  ft.,  while  a coaling  wharf  gives  21  ft.  at  all  times. 
Repairing  docks  exist,  with  ample  facilities  for  the 
repair  of  either  hulls  or  machinery.  Among  other  facili- 
ties may  be  mentioned  a floating  dock,  300  ft.  in  length, 
and  capable  of  taking  a vessel  of  3,000  tons  displacement 
and  21  ft.  draught.  Coal  is  plentiful  and  obtainable  at 
a moderate  price,  and  fish,  fruit,  and  vegetables  for 
supply  to  ships  form  industries  in  the  town. 

The  principal  means  of  communication  by  sea  is 
afforded  by  the  steamers  of  the  P.S.N.  Co.  and  those  of 
the  C.S.A.  de  V.,  each  line  maintaining  a service  which 
allows  of  two  calls  a week,  the  former  company  con- 
necting directly  with  Panama  northward  and  Liverpool, 
Southampton,  New  York,  and  European  ports  via  Cape 
Horn.  The  Kosmos  and  other  lines  maintain  a regular 
service  between  Callao  and  other  west  coast  ports  ; and 
there  is  a direct  service  of  steamers  between  Callao  and 
Hong-Kong  via  Panama  and  Yokohama.  A submarine 
cable  provides  telegraphic  communication  with  all  parts. 

The  climate  of  Callao  is  good  throughout  the  year,  the 
temperature  varying  between  64°  and  74°  Fahr.  A sea 
breeze  mitigates  the  heat,  and  the  nights  are  cool  and 
pleasant.  Fogs  are  common  from  December  to  March, 
and  throughout  the  year  the  early  mornings  are  charac- 
terised by  mists.  Yellow  fever  occurs  at  times,  but 
epidemic  diseases  are  rare  on  the  whole. 

Callao  is  connected  with  Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru,  by 


PORTS  AND  HARBOURS 


125 


two  railways, each  seven  miles  in  length, by  which  an  hourly 
service  is  maintained  ; and  there  is  also  an  electric  tram- 
way, while  shaded  avenues  are  available  for  wheeled 
vehicles  and  pedestrians.  One  of  the  two  railways  forms 
the  seaward  termination  of  the  famous  Oroya  line  (for 
which,  see  Chapter  on  Inland  Communication  and  Trans- 
port). Lima  itself  stands  on  the  banks  of  the  Rimac, 
chiefly  on  the  southern  bank,  practically  at  the  foot  of 
the  coastal  cordillera,  and  is  laid  out  in  the  usual  chess- 
board fashion  of  South  American  cities.  The  chief 
building  is  the  old  Spanish  cathedral  on  the  “ Plaza 
Mayor,”  the  principal  square  of  the  city.  The  foreign 
element  in  Lima  consists  mainly  of  German,  French,  and 
Italian  settlers ; while  the  American  and  English 
residents  congregate  principally  in  Callao. 

The  following  tables,  taken  from  the  Consular  Report 
for  Peru,  1911-12,  give  details  of  the  shipping  which 
used  the  port  in  1912 — 

Return  of  Shipping  of  all  Nationalities  which  Entered  and  Cleared  in 
the  Foreign  Trade  of  the  Port  of  Callao  during  the  Year  1912 
(a)  Steam  Vessels 
Entered 


Nationality. 

With  Cargo. 

In  Ballast. 

Total. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

British  . . 

177 

541,849 

29 

48,626 

206 

590,475 

Chilean  . . 

112 

198,766 

1 

210 

113 

198,976 

French  . . 

6 

18,119 

— 

— 

6 

18,119 

German . . 

80 

278,574 

1 

2,408 

81 

280,982 

Japanese 

12 

49,814 

— 

— 

12 

49,814 

Norwegian  . . 

9 

24,500 

— 

— 

9 

24,500 

Peruvian 

50 

112,532 

— 



50 

112,532 

United  States 

1 

3,209 

1 

981 

2 

4,190 

Total 

447 

1,227,363 

32 

52,225 

479 

1,279,588 

126 


PERU 


Cleared 


Nationality. 

With  Cargo. 

In  Ballast. 

Total. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

British  . . 

140 

431,844 

28 

61,335 

168 

493,179 

Chilean  . . 

103 

183,147 

— 

— 

103 

183,147 

French  . . 

6 

18,119 

— 

— 

6 

18,119 

German 

73 

253,472 

— 

— 

73 

253,472 

Japanese 

11 

46,574 

— 

— 

11 

46,574 

Norwegian  . . 

9 

24,500 

— 

— 

9 

24,500 

Peruvian 

47 

106,092 

— 

— 

47 

106,092 

United  States 

1 

3,209 

1 

981 

2 

4,190 

Total 

390 

1,066,957 

29 

62,316 

419 

1,129,273 

(b)  Sailing  Vessels 
Entered 


Nationality. 

With  Cargo. 

In  Ballast. 

Total. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

British  . . 

14 

24,452 

2 

2,886 

16 

27,338 

Argentina 

1 

144 

— 

— 

1 

144 

Ecuadorean  . . 

1 

251 

— 

— 

1 

251 

French  . . 

2 

4,284 

1 

1,944 

3 

6,228 

German 

10 

18,579 

— 

— 

10 

18,579 

Italian  . . 

2 

2,649 

1 

1,409 

3 

4,058 

Norwegian  . . 

14 

21,365 

2 

2,379 

16 

23,744 

Peruvian 

3 

2,955 

— 

— 

3 

2,955 

Russian 

3 

4,838 

— 

— 

3 

4,838 

Swedish . . 

— 

— 

1 

1,876 

1 

1,876 

United  States 

26 

18,320 

— 

— 

26 

18,320 

Total 

76 

97,837 

7 

10,494 

83 

108,331 

Cleared  (in  Ballast) 


British 

French 

German 

Italian 

Norwegian  . . 
Peruvian 
Russian 
Swedish 
United  States 


Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

. . 11 

18,368 

5 

10,266 

..  11 

20,052 

2 

2,818 

. . 17 

25,419 

..  5 

4,796 

3 

4,838 

1 

1,876 

. . 24 

17,052 

79 

105,485 

PORTS  AND  HARBOURS 


127 


For  the  Imports  and  Exports,  see  (1)  Callao  in  List  of 
Towns  ; (2)  Chapter  on  Imports  and  Exports. 

South  of  Callao,  the  principal  ports  are  Cerro  Azul, 
Tambo  de  Mora,  Pisco,  Port  Chala,  Quilca,  Port  Mollendo, 
Islay,  and  Ilo.  Arica,  being  situated  in  the  province 
of  Tacna,  is  now  a Chilean  port. 

Cerro  Azul  is  the  port  for  the  beautiful  and  fertile 
valley  of  Canete,  in  which  sugar  is  largely  grown.  This, 
together  with  rum  as  a by-product,  is  mainly  exported 
from  Cerro  Azul,  where  steamers  of  the  P.S.N.  Co.  and 
the  C.S.A.  de  V.  call  regularly.  Landing  here  is  difficult 
at  all  seasons,  owing  to  the  heavy  surf ; but  a wharf  has 
been  constructed  in  connection  with  the  works  of  Casa 
Blanca  and  Quebrada,  which  facilitates  the  landing  of 
goods  for  these  establishments.  There  is  telegraphic 
communication  with  Lima. 

Tambo  de  Mora  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chincha 
river  (15J  miles  north  of  Pisco).  It  is  a small  settlement, 
and  a port  of  call  for  the  coasting  steamers  of  the  P.S.N. 
Co.  and  the  C.S.A.  de  V.  Landing  is  difficult,  and  at 
times  dangerous,  on  account  of  the  heavy  surf. 

Pisco,  the  chief  port  in  the  province  of  lea,  is  situated 
on  Pisco  Bay.  This  bay  is  formed  by  the  peninsula  of 
Paracas  to  the  south,  and  protected  by  the  Balleista 
Islands  and  the  Chincha  Islands  on  the  west.  It  is  a 
regular  port  of  call  for  the  coasting  steamers  of  the 
principal  lines,  and  is  connected  by  rail  and  telegraph 
with  lea,  the  capital  of  the  province.  Imports  and 
exports  total  about  a quarter  of  a million  sterling  annually ; 
the  chief  exports  are  cotton,  cotton  seed  and  oil  cake, 
wool,  goatskins,  hides,  and  mineral  ores.  Pisco  Bay 


128 


PERU 


affords  safe  anchorage,  and  there  is  at  the  north  of  the 
town  an  iron  pier,  600  yds.  in  length,  with  18  ft.  of  water 
alongside.  The  railway,  at  present  extending  only 
45  miles  inland  to  lea,  is  intended  eventually  to  connect 
the  rich  silver  mining  districts  at  the  head  of  the 
Chunchanga  gorge  with  the  coast. 

Port  Chala  is  the  nearest  coast  port  to  the  city  of  Cuzco, 
and  trades  principally  in  hides,  wool,  and  mineral  ores, 
there  being  good  copper  veins  in  the  vicinity  of  the  port. 
The  steamers  of  the  P.S.N.  Co.  and  the  C.S.A.  de  V. 
call  regularly,  but  landing  is  generally  dangerous,  owing 
to  the  heavy  Pacific  swell ; and  the  trade  of  the  port  is 
inconsiderable. 

Quilca,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  is 
visited  every  three  weeks  by  the  steamers  of  the  two 
principal  lines  ; but  there  are  no  landing  facilities,  and 
the  trade  of  the  port  is  very  small.  There  is  telegraphic 
communication  with  all  parts. 

Mollendo,  now  that  Arica  belongs  to  Chile,  is  the 
principal  port  of  southern  Peru.  It  is  the  - coastal 
terminus  of  the  railway  to  Arequipa  ; to  Puno,  on  the 
shore  of  Lake  Titicaca  ; and  Cuzco.  The  population 
of  Mollendo  is  estimated  at  7,000,  and  its  imports  and 
exports,  of  which  the  former  are  slightly  in  excess  of  the 
latter,  at  about  a million  sterling.  The  principal  exports 
are  copper,  silver,  borate  of  lime,  and  wool.  (See  also 
Chapter  on  Imports  and  Exports.)  A noteworthy  fact  in 
connection  with  the  town  is  that  its  water  supply  is 
brought  from  Arequipa,  100  miles  distant,  by  iron  pipes. 
The  anchorage  is  entirely  unprotected,  and  from  June 
to  October  the  swell  is  often  so  violent  as  to  prevent  the 


PORTS  AND  HARBOURS 


129 


landing  of  goods  in  lighters.  A scheme  is  under  way, 
however,  for  the  construction  of  a breakwater  and  dock 
for  the  accommodation  of  lighters.  The  steamers  of  the 
two  principal  lines,  and  also  those  of  the  Kosmos  Co., 
call  here  regularly ; and  the  railway  line  affords  com- 
munication with  Cuzco,  La  Paz,  and  the  Bolivian  railway 
system,  and  with  the  Chilean  port  of  Antofagasta  via 
La  Paz. 

The  following  tables,  taken  from  the  Consular  Report 
for  Peru,  1911-12,  give  details  of  the  shipping  which  used 
the  port  in  1912 — 

Return  of  Shipping  of  all  Nationalities  which  Entered  and  Cleared  in 
the  Foreign  Trade  of  the  Port  of  Mollendo  during  the  Year  1912 
(a)  Steam  V essels 
Entered  (with  Cargo) 


Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

British 

. . 280 

872,776 

Chilean 

. . 101 

181,560 

German 

. . 110 

372,160 

French 

8 

34,000 

Norwegian 

6 

16,174 

Japanese  .. 

7 

20,250 

Italian 

2 

5,900 

Peruvian  . . 

48 

95,230 

United  States 

1 

4,200 

Total 

. . 563 

1,602,250 

Cleared 


Nationality. 

With  Cargo. 

In  Ballast. 

Total. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

British  . . 

270 

840,026 

10 

32,750 

280 

872,776 

Chilean  . . 

101 

181,560 

— 

— 

101 

181,560 

German 

106 

358,560 

4 

13,600 

110 

372,160 

French  . . 

8 

34,000 

— 

— 

8 

34,000 

Norwegian 

3 

8,360 

3 

7,814 

6 

16,174 

Japanese 

7 

20,250 

— 

— 

7 

20,250 

Italian  . . 

2 

5,900 

— 

— 

2 

5,900 

Peruvian 

48 

95,230 

— 

— 

48 

95,230 

United  States 

— 

— 

1 

4,200 

1 

4,200 

Total 

545 

1 ,543,886 

18 

58,364 

563 

1,602,250 

130 


PERU 


Cleared 


( b ) Sailing  Vessels 


Entered  (with  Cargo)  and  Cleared  (in  Ballast) 


German 
Norwegian 
United  States 


Vessels  Tonnage. 


XcUl  . . . . . . . . Z,  ^,ODU 

States  . . . . . . 2 2,210 


3 3,950 

2 2,560 


Total  . . . . 7 8,720 


Islay.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  building  of  the  railway 
line  from  Mollendo  to  Arequipa,  Islay,  5 miles  north- 
west of  Mollendo,  was  the  principal  port  of  the  province  ; 
but,  except  for  a telegraph  station,  the  place  is  now 
practically  deserted.  The  bay  affords  better  anchorage 
than  that  at  Mollendo,  and  an  extension  of  the  railway 
would  probably  revive  the  trade  of  Islay ; a pier  is  still 
in  existence,  but  the  “ swell  ” makes  landing  difficult, 
though  not  to  such  a degree  as  at  Mollendo. 

Ilo  (or  Ylo)  is  the  most  southerly  port  of  Peru,  and 
the  seaward  terminus  of  the  Moquegua  railway.  The 
anchorage  is  an  open  roadstead,  slightly  protected  to  the 
south  by  Coles’  Point,  the  last  promontory  of  the 
Peruvian  coast  to  the  south.  The  town  of  Ilo  is  small, 
and  the  trade  of  the  port  does  not  exceed  a total  of 
£20,000  sterling  annually.  The  coasting  steamers  of 
the  two  principal  lines  call  regularly,  and  telegraphic 
communication  is  available  with  all  parts.  The  railway 
from  Ilo  was  intended  to  connect  with  Lake  Titicaca, 
but  it  is  unlikely  to  reach  further  than  Moquegua  for 
some  years. 

Northern  Ports. — Northward  from  Callao  a railway 
runs  parallel  with  the  coast  to  Ancon,  a bay  which  affords 
shelter  from  all  southerly  winds.  The  population  of  the 
town  of  Ancon  is  little  over  300,  but  the  place  is  a very 


PORTS  AND  HARBOURS 


131 


popular  bathing  resort  for  the  inhabitants  of  Callao  and 
Lima.  Twelve  miles  northward  from  Callao  is  situated 
Chancay,  in  a bay  which  is  suited  only  for  small  coasting 
vessels.  Chancay  is  the  centre  of  a considerable  sugar 
industry,  being  connected  by  tram  lines  with  a number 
of  plantations  in  the  vicinity.  A railway  links  up 
Chancay  with  Lima  to  the  south  and  Palpa  to  the  north- 
east, as  well  as  extending  northward  to  Huacho  and 
Huara. 

The  next  point  of  importance  on  the  coast  is  Huacho, 
a town  of  9,000  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  about  a mile 
to  the  north  of  Huacho  Bay,  which  affords  good  anchor- 
age, and  is  visited  regularly  by  the  steamers  of  the  two 
principal  lines,  the  P.S.N.  Co.  and  the  C.S.A.  de  V. 
There  is  a pier  for  loading  and  unloading  cargoes,  and 
the  town  is  connected  with  Ancon  by  railway.  Another 
line  southward  via  Salinas  connects  the  port  with 
Chancay  and  Lima. 

Supe  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Pativilca,  is  chiefly 
visited  by  coasting  vessels,  though  the  steamers  of  the 
two  principal  lines  call  regularly.  The  town  of  Supe  is 
situated  midway  between  Barranca  and  San  Nicolas,  a 
railway  about  20  miles  in  length  connecting  the  three 
towns.  Sugar  and  maize  are  the  chief  products,  and  a 
brisk  trade  in  these  articles  is  maintained  by  the  coasting 
vessels  which  frequent  the  port. 

From  Casma,  a small  port  in  the  Department  of 
Ancachs,  a good  quality  of  cotton  is  exported  in  small 
quantities,  and  this  trade  is  capable  of  considerable 
development ; corn  is  also  exported,  and  the  steamers 
of  the  two  principal  lines  call  regularly.  Samanco  Bay 


132 


PERU 


a few  miles  farther  north,  is  the  most  extensive  on  the 
coast  of  Peru  to  the  north  of  Callao,  being  3 miles  in 
depth.  Rice,  cotton,  and  cereals  are  the  chief  articles 
of  export,  and  the  coasting  steamers  of  the  P.S.N.  Co. 
call  regularly. 

Eight  miles  north  of  Samanco  is  situated  Ferrol  Bay, 
well  sheltered  by  Blanca  Island  and  the  Ferrol  group. 
Port  Chimbote,  situated  on  the  bay,  is  the  seaward 
terminus  of  a narrow  gauge  railway  of  over  150  miles  in 
length,  which  follows  the  course  of  the  river  Santa  and 
then  turns  south  along  the  Callejos  de  Huar&s  to  Huards, 
the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Ancachs,  and  centre  of 
a district  rich  in  coal  and  mineral  ores.  Chimbote  itself 
has  a population  of  about  1,500,  and  is  the  centre  of  a 
district  well  suited  to  sugar  cultivation ; the  remains  of 
Inca  irrigating  channels  show  that  the  district  was  at 
one  time  much  more  cultivated  than  at  present,  and  that 
the  population  was  far  greater.  Shipping  to  the  total  of 
about  250,000  tons  visits  the  port  annually,  although  it 
is  not  a port  of  entry,  and  the  principal  exports  are 
sugar,  coffee,  and  mineral  ores.  There  is  telegraphic 
communication  with  all  parts,  and  the  vessels  of  the 
principal  lines  call  regularly. 

Santa  Bay,  a few  miles  north  of  Chimbote,  is  the  site 
of  a small  and  rarely  visited  settlement ; the  river  Santa, 
which  enters  the  sea  here,  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
Peruvian  coastal  rivers,  but  it  is  quite  unnavigable. 
The  district  is  mainly  devoted  to  sugar  growing. 

Salaveny,  situated  at  the  southern  extremity  of  a 
railway  which  traverses  the  fertile  valleys  of  Chicama 
and  Chimu,  in  the  Department  of  La  Libertad,  is  a port 


PORTS  AND  HARBOURS 


133 


of  growing  importance,  devoted  chiefly  to  the  export  of 
sugar.  The  railway  runs  to  the  shore,  and  an  iron  pier 
renders  landing  and  shipping  of  goods  safe  at  all  times. 
Steamers  of  the  principal  lines  call  here  regularly,  and 
shipping  to  the  extent  of  about  500,000  tons  visits  the 
port  annually.  Salaverry  shares  the  export  trade  of  the 
Chimu  valley  with  Huanchaco,  about  12  miles  farther 
north  along  the  coast.  The  latter  port  affords  a less 
protected  anchorage,  and  in  spite  of  the  existence  of  a 
pier  over  150  yds.  in  length,  landing  is  interrupted  at 
times  by  the  Pacific  rollers,  which  are  at  their  worst  in 
May  and  June  on  this  part  of  the  coast.  Landing  and 
shipping  of  goods  is  effected  by  means  of  lighters  ; and 
the  coasting  steamers  of  the  P.S.N.  Co.,  the  C.S.A.  de  V., 
the  Gulf,  Kosmos,  and  other  lines  call  to  take  in  cargoes 
of  sugar,  the  products  of  the  fertile  valleys  of  Chicama 
and  Chimu. 

About  50  miles  farther  to  the  north,  Pacasmayo,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  forms  the  seaward 
terminus  of  the  railway  which  extends  inland  to  Chilete 
and  northward  to  Guadalupe.  A pier,  1,000  yds.  in 
length,  fitted  with  10-ton  cranes,  makes  this  one  of  the 
best  ports,  as  far  as  shipping  facilities  are  concerned,  on 
the  Peruvian  coast.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in  sugar  and 
rice,  grown  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Rio  Pacasmayo. 
Steamers  of  the  two  principal  lines  call  regularly,  and 
the  exports  attain  a value  of  about  £130,000  annually. 

Eten  Point,  33  miles  farther  north,  is  the  site  of  a pier 
nearly  900  yards  in  length,  which  facilitates  the  loading 
of  boats  and  lighters.  The  building  of  this  pier  has 
diverted  shipping  from  Lambayeque,  which,  situated 

IO— (aa47) 


134 


PERU 


about  12  miles  farther  north,  had  the  reputation  of  the 
worst  anchorage  on  the  Peruvian  coast.  Eten  Point  is 
now  the  terminus  of  a railway  which  runs  north  to 
Chiclayo,  Lambayeque,  Jayanca,  and  Ferrenafe,  and 
the  exports  of  the  district  which  the  railway  serves, 
passing  through  the  port,  are  valued  annually  at  about 
£250,000.  The  steamers  of  the  two  principal  lines  call 
regularly  at  Eten,  and  there  is  telegraphic  communication 
with  all  parts. 

Northward  of  the  district  served  by  the  port  of  Eten, 
the  desert  of  Sechura  stretches  almost  to  Piura,  and  the 
coast  is  devoid  of  anchorages  until  Paita  is  reached. 
This  is  the  best  natural  port  on  the  Peruvian  coast,  being 
so  well  sheltered  that  the  shipping  of  cargo  is  never  inter- 
rupted. The  population  of  the  town  is  estimated  at 
3,000,  and  the  trade  of  the  port,  both  inward  and  out- 
ward, is  steadily  increasing.  The  principal  exports  are 
charcoal  and  firewood,  cotton,  cotton-seed,  “ Panama  ” 
hats,  salt,  and  tobacco  ; while  the  chief  imports  are  flour 
from  Callao,  lumber,  bricks,  galvanised  iron,  and  general 
merchandise.  Paita  is  sometimes  named  the  petroleum 
port  of  Peru,  but  this  is  a mistake,  as  the  petroleum 
trade  is  all  done  through  the  ports  of  Talara  and  Lobitos, 
farther  to  the  north.  Paita  is  considered  one  of  the 
healthiest,  and  it  is  certainly  one  of  the  driest  places  in 
Peru,  rain  only  occurring  at  intervals  of  years.  About 
700,000  tons  of  shipping  visit  the  port  annually ; the 
two  principal  lines  maintain  a weekly  service  between 
Callao,  Paita,  and  the  Panama  Isthmus,  and  all  lines 
serving  the  west  coast  of  Peru  call  here.  There  is  tele- 
graphic and  cable  communication  with  all  parts,  via 


PORTS  AND  HARBOURS 


135 


either  Panama  or  Callao  ; and  a railway  extends  inland 
from  the  port  to  Sullana  and  Piura,  a distance  of  nearly 
60  miles.  Two  piers  afford  excellent  facilities  for  landing 
and  loading  cargoes. 

The  following  tables,  taken  from  the  Consular  Report 
of  Peru  for  1911-12,  give  details  of  the  shipping  which 
used  the  port  in  1912 — 

Return  of  Shipping  of  all  Nationalities  which  Entered  and  Cleared  in  the 
Foreign  Trade  of  the  Port  of  Paita  during  the  year  1912 


(a)  Sailing  Vessels.  Entered 


Nationality. 

With  Cargo. 

In  B 

allast. 

Tot 

al. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Argentine 

1 

144 

— 

— 

1 

144 

Columbian 

7 

330 

— 

— 

7 

330 

Ecuadorian 

3 

172 

— 

— 

3 

172 

Peruvian 

6 

1,278 

3 

376 

9 

1,654 

Total 

17 

1,924 

3 

376 

20 

2,300 

Cleared 


Nationality. 

With  Cargo. 

In 

B 

allast. 

Tot 

al. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Argentine 

1 

144 

— 

— 

1 

144 

Columbian 

2 

78 

— 

— 

2 

78 

Ecuadorian 

3 

172 

— 

— 

3 

172 

Peruvian 

2 

26 

2 

84 

4 

110 

Total 

8 

420 

2 

84 

10 

504 

(6)  Steam  Vessels.  Entered 


Nationality. 

With  Cargo. 

In  Ballast. 

Total. 

British  

United  States 

Chilean 

Peruvian 

German 

Norwegian 
French  

Vessels. 

100 

1 

85 

48 

7 

4 

Tonnage. 

242,507 

3,209 

153,975 

108,523 

21,996 

10,925 

Vessels. 

36 

27 

2 

3 

1 

1 

Tonnage. 

93,539 

42,782 

154 

9,856 

2,597 

3,263 

Vessels. 

136 

1 

112 

50 

10 

5 

1 

Tonnage. 

336,046 

3,209 

196,757 

108,677 

31,852 

13,522 

3,263 

Total 

235 

541,135 

70 

152,191 

315 

693,326 

136 


PERU 


Cleared 


Nationality. 

With  Cargo. 

In  Ballast. 

Total. 

British  

Chilean 

Peruvian 

German 

French  

Vessels. 

84 

75 

47 

3 

1 

Tonnage. 

195,707 

138,048 

105,851 

9,740 

3,263 

Vessels. 

35 

37 

1 

Tonnage. 

106,050 

58,709 

3,014 

Vessels. 

119 

112 

47 

4 

1 

Tonnage. 

301.757 

196.757 
105,851 

12,754 

3,263 

Total 

210 

452,609 

73 

167,773 

283 

620,382 

T alar  a Bay,  34  miles  north  of  Paita,  is  a port  concerned 
exclusively  with  the  petroleum  trade,  and  is  the  property 
of  the  London  and  Pacific  Petroleum  Co.,  which  owns  the 
wells  of  Negritos,  about  7 miles  south  of  the  bay.  The 
oil  is  brought  to  the  coast  by  means  of  a pipe  line,  and 
the  exports  consist  mainly  of  crude  petroleum,  which  is 
shipped  to  Chile,  principally — small  quantities  also  being 
sent  to  the  United  States  and  to  Ecuador.  In  the  year 
1912  about  60,000  metric  tons  of  crude  petroleum  were 
exported  from  Talara,  together  with  about  9,000  tons  of 
gasoline  and  kerosene. 

Lobitos.  The  company  known  as  the  Lobitos  Oilfields, 
Ltd.,  whose  port  is  on  the  coast  between  Paita  and 
Talara,  exports  about  two-thirds  as  much  oil  as  is  sent 
out  from  Talara  annually.  A third  small  enterprise, 
known  as  the  Zorritos  oilfields,  has  an  output  of  nearly 
20,000  tons  of  crude  petroleum  and  other  products 
annually.  These  places  are  all  dependent  on  Paita  for 
regular  communication  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  there 
being  no  regular  steam  service.  Both  at  Talara  and 
Zorritos,  piers  exist  to  facilitate  shipping  of  goods,  and 
that  at  Talara  accommodates  vessels  of  up  to  28  ft. 
draught. 


PORTS  AND  HARBOURS 


137 


Tumbes,  the  most  northerly  port  of  Peru,  is  near  the 
site  of  the  first  Spanish  settlement  in  the  country,  and  is 
situated  on  the  Tumbes  river.  The  steamers  of  the  two 
principal  lines  call  regularly,  and  the  chief  exports  are 
coal,  timber,  and  general  cereal  produce.  The  town  is 
situated  about  12  miles  up  the  river,  which  is  not  navig- 
able ; the  port  is  of  only  minor  importance,  though  in 
the  period  of  Inca  government,  the  spot  was  one  of  the 
most  populous  and  prosperous  in  Peru. 

So  far  as  foreign  merchandise  is  concerned,  Callao, 
Mollendo,  and  Paita  are  the  chief  ports  ; the  remainder 
are  engaged  almost  solely  in  the  coastal  trade,  and, 
further,  are  not  served  by  steamers  connecting  direct 
with  Europe,  so  that  transhipment  of  goods  is  necessary. 
In  the  year  1912,  the  foreign  vessels  entering  Callao 
amounted  to  a total  tonnage  of  nearly  1,400,000,  while 
those  entering  Mollendo  totalled  over  1,600,000.  In  the 
same  year,  the  shipping  entering  the  port  of  Paita 
amounted  to  about  700,000  tons.  In  all  cases,  the 
British  shipping  far  exceeded  that  of  any  other  nationality, 
as  the  P.S.N.  Co.  exceeds  all  other  lines  in  importance 
along  the  west  coast. 

River  Ports. — Iquitos,  the  river  port  of  Peru,  is 
situated  on  the  Amazon  river,  about  2,500  miles  from 
its  mouth,  and  is  the  capital  of  the  department  of 
Loreto,  which  comprises  the  greater  and  more  valuable 
territory  of  the  montana  region. 

The  following  tables,  taken  from  the  Consular 
Report  for  Iquitos,  1912,  show  the  shipping  which 
used  the  port,  and  the  chief  exports  of  the  district  in 
1912— 


138 


PERU 


Return  of  British  Shipping  Entered  and  Cleared  in  the  Foreign 
Trade  of  the  Port  of  Iquitos  during  the  Year  1912 
Steam  Vessels 


Entered  (with  Cargo) 


Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

United  Kingdom  . . 

9 

11,947 

United  States 

..  9 

7,302 

Total 

..  18 

19,249 

Cleared 

(with  Cargo) 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

United  Kingdom  . . 

..  10 

13,091 

United  States 

..  8 

6,608 

Total 

..  18 

19,699 

Table  showing  Exports  of  Rubber  from  Iquitos  during  the  Years 
1907-12 


Month. 

1907. 

1908. 

1909. 

1910. 

1911. 

1912. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

January 

399,516 

199,290 

— 

67,160 

249,430 

404,156 

February  . . 

226,810 

284,168 

331,345 

401,053 

155,219 

231,706 

March 

206,993 

117,106 

188,947 

46,582 

9,029 

270,805 

April  . . 

278,781 

175,263 

147,442 

182,701 

344,986 

287,423 

May 

281,753 

245,436 

108,449 

172,391 

112,584 

3,935 

June  . . . . 

25,552 

— 

289,422 

139,021 

62,157 

151,574 

July  . . . . 

246,745 

254,683 

— 

17,454 

83,757 

119,354 

August 

— 

— 

203,372 

235,600 

151,900 

178,388 

September 

264,919 

206,424 

— 

297,528 

29,978 

303,870 

October 

234,055 

158,234 

514,041 

151,516 

587,376 

— 

November  . . 

366,232 

215,655 

293,045 

260,112 

279,101 

540,95! 

December  . . 

365,051 

528,893 

446,003 

323,073 

16,370 

321,802 

Total 

2,896,407 

2,385,152 

2,522,066 

2,294,191 

2,081,887 

t2, 813, 964 

Table  showing  Classification  and  Destination  of  Rubber  Exported 
_ from  the  Port  of  Iquitos  during  the  Year  1912 


Havre. 

Liverpool. 

Hamburg. 

New  York. 

Total. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Fine  rubber 

318,206 

434,923 

75,908 

42,898 

871,935 

Entrefine 

26,494 

39,977 

1,681 

1,692 

69,844 

Semamby 

150,634 

169,834 

27,257 

14,407 

362,132 

Caucho 

35,578 

14,278 

256 

4,631 

54,743 

Semamby  de 
Caucho  . . 

359,374 

334,740 

76,496 

37,422 

808,032 

Weak  fine 

144,081 

318,734 

146,235 

38,228 

647,278 

Total 

1,034,367 

1,312,486 

327,833 

139,278 

2,813,964 

PORTS  AND  HARBOURS 


139 


Table  showing  Exports  of  other  Products  during  the  Year  1912 


Havre. 

Liver- 

pool. 

Ham- 

burg. 

New 

York. 

Callao. 

Total 

Ivory  nuts 

Kilos 

504,755 

406,062 

120,410 

154,447 

1,185,674 

Hides 

Doe. 

1,073 

19,144 

— 

— 

— 

20,217 

Panama  hats 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

188 

Cedar  logs 

Kilos 

— 

— 

— 

4,000 

— 

4,000 

Hard  wood 

— 

— 

— 

313 

— 

313 

Silver  coins 

Soles 

— 

33,200 

— 

— 

23,000 

56,200 

The  river  ports  of  Nazareth  on  the  Javary,  Yurimaguas 
on  the  Huallaga,  Contamana  on  the  Ucayali,  and  to  a 
certain  extent,  Caballo  Cocha  on  the  Amazon  below 
Iquitos,  send  their  produce  to  Iquitos,  as  it  is  the  only 
point  on  the  upper  river  at  which  ocean-going  vessels 
discharge  and  load  cargo.  Rubber,  the  chief  export,  is 
almost  stationary  in  volume,  having  reached  its  highest 
point  in  1907,  when  the  total  was  2,896,407  kilos.  After 
this,  the  rate  of  export  fell  considerably,  but  rose  again 
in  1912  to  2,813,964  kilos.  The  rate  of  export  is  not 
likely  to  increase,  as  there  is  no  cultivation  of  the  trees. 
The  rubber  is  gathered  from  the  forests  by  natives,  and, 
as  there  is  no  planting,  the  supply  is  bound  to  decrease 
in  course  of  time  unless  a system  of  planting  is  adopted. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  trade  in  vegetable  ivory  is 
increasing  at  a rapid  rate,  having  risen  from  374  kilos, 
in  1907  to  no  less  than  1,185,674  kilos,  in  1912.  Improved 
plant  for  peeling  the  nuts  renders  classification  of  the 
exports  easier,  and  thus  increases  the  value  of  the  pro- 
duct in  foreign  markets.  Like  the  rubber  trees,  the  nut- 
bearing palms  are  an  uncultivated  growth  ; but,  unlike 
the  rubber,  the  collection  of  the  nuts  does  not  damage 
the  trees,  and  as  the  supply  is  practically  unlimited,  the 


140 


PERU 


trade  is  likely  to  increase  to  a far  greater  extent.  Havre 
and  Liverpool  are  the  ports  to  which  the  greater  part  of 
this  product  is  consigned.  Other  exports  of  minor 
importance  are  cedar  logs,  hides,  and  “ Panama  ” 
hats. 

The  Iquitos  Steamship  Co.,  Ltd.,  maintains  two 
regular  services  from  Iquitos  : one  to  Liverpool  and 
Continental  ports,  and  the  other  to  New  York.  A com- 
pany known  as  the  Amazon  Steam  Navigation  Co.,  with 
a monthly  service  between  Iquitos  and  Para  via  Manaos, 
was  a competitor  with  the  first-named  company  until 
the  end  of  1911,  but  since  then  its  boats  have  ceased 
running. 

Communication  with  Lima  is  effected  by  means  of  two 
routes  : the  “ Northern  ” and  the  “ Central  ” — the 

former  being  the  better  of  the  two  between  May  and 
November,  the  latter  being  preferred  for  the  other 
months  of  the  year.  The  “ Northern  ” route  runs  by 
way  of  Yurimaguas,  Chacbapoyas,  and  Cajamarca  to  the 
coast  at  Pacasmayo  ; while  the  “ Central  ” follows  the 
rivers  Ucayali,  Pachitea,  and  Pichis  for  1,000  miles,  the 
remaining  450  miles  of  the  journey  being  performed  by 
mules  (see  pp.  111-4).  Iquitos  has  long  been  agitating  for 
a direct  railway  connection  with  Lima  ; and,  in  order  to 
satisfy  this  need,  work  has  been  begun  on  an  extension 
of  the  Oroya  railway  to  Pucalpa,  on  the  Ucayali  river, 
and  only  700  miles  distant  from  Iquitos.  Telegraphic 
communication  with  Lima  is  maintained  by  means  of  the 
Telefunken  wireless  system,  a tower  having  been  erected 
at  Iquitos,  by  means  of  which  direct  communication  has 
been  established  with  the  wireless  tower  on  the  Cerro  San 


PORTS  AND  HARBOURS 


141 


Cristobal,  near  Lima.  Wireless  communication  has  also 
been  established  with  El  Encanto,  in  the  Putumayo 
district ; and  it  is  hoped  that  soon  the  private  wires 
existing  between  Iquitos  and  Manaos  may  be  augmented 
by  a line  open  to  commercial  use. 


CHAPTER  XI 


AGRICULTURE — FOREST  PRODUCTS — GUANO — 

LAND  TENURE  AND  COLONISATION — GRAZING  AND 
CATTLE-BREEDING 

A review  of  the  agriculture  of  Peru  necessitates  once 
more  a consideration  of  the  three  great  zones  into  which 
the  country  is  divided — the  coast,  the  Andine  region,  and 
the  montana — with  their  vast  climatic  and  other  difference. 

The  coastlands  possess,  generally  speaking,  a deep  and 
fertile  soil,  a warm  and  uniform  climate,  and  practically 
an  entire  absence  of  rain,  frost,  hail,  and  violent  storms. 
In  short,  the  conditions  are  favourable  in  an  unusual 
degree  to  scientific  cultivation,  except  for  the  lack  of 
adequate  water  supply.  Agriculture  in  that  zone 
depends  almost  entirely  on  artificial  irrigation  ; where 
this  is  not  available,  the  soil  becomes  absolute  desert. 

Rainfall  begins  and  increases  as  the  land  rises  to  the 
inter-Andine  region.  The  soil  is  still  thick  and  fertile, 
though  less  so  than  on  the  coast.  The  irrigated  valleys 
produce  many  of  the  large  crops  found  on  the  coast, 
together  with  coca  ; while  potatoes  and  various  cereal 
crops  (including  in  this  term,  maize,  alfalfa,  and  quinoa), 
are  grown  on  the  uplands  at  elevations  extending  as  high 
as  13,000  ft.  or  more. 

East  of  the  Andes,  new  climatic  conditions  are 
encountered.  The  rainfall  is  abundant,  amounting  to 
an  average  of  70  in.  per  annum  ; from  May  to  October 
the  rains  are,  in  the  lower  parts,  torrential.  The  vast 

142 


AGRICULTURE 


143 


slopes  provide  a system  of  natural  irrigation ; the 
“ humus  ” is  usually  15  ft.  or  more  in  depth — virgin  soil 
of  extraordinary  fertility.  While  the  upper  regions  pro- 
duce freely  most  of  the  crops  grown  on  the  coast,  agri- 
culture on  a considerable  scale  has  hardly  begun  as  yet ; 
and  the  only  things  exploited  on  a large  scale  are  the 
forest  products — rubber  and  ivory  nuts  ( tagua ). 

Facilities  for  education,  inter-communication,  trans- 
port, and  export  have  naturally  promoted  the  develop- 
ment of  scientific  agriculture  on  the  coast  and  the  more 
accessible  inter-Andine  valleys.  Modern  methods  and 
machinery  are  very  largely  employed.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  high  plateaux  and  in  the  scanty  settlements 
of  the  montana  the  most  primitive  implements  and 
methods  are  usual,  owing  chiefly  to  the  great  cost  and 
difficulty  of  transport. 

The  area  susceptible  of  cultivation  on  the  coast  is 
estimated  at  50,000,000  acres,  of  which  only  about 
2,000,000  are  now  under  cultivation.  The  evidence  of  a 
great  population  in  districts  now  desert  would  seem  to 
imply,  in  the  time  of  the  Incas,  a skilful  system  of  irriga- 
tion, which  the  Spanish  conquerors,  through  ignorance 
or  pre-occupation  in  the  hunt  for  gold,  suffered  to  decay. 
The  reclamation  of  these  lands  is  one  of  the  cares  of  the 
Ministry  of  Development  (Fomento).  Artesian  wells 
were  sunk  in  1861  ; more  recently,  under  the  direction 
of  American  hydraulic  engineers,  irrigating  canals  have 
been  constructed  on  the  rivers  Chira  and  Piura,  in  Lam- 
bayeque  and  in  the  Chicama  valley.  By  such  means, 
and  by  storage  reservoirs,  the  area  is  being  gradually 
extended. 


144 


PERU 


The  west  coast  is  also  favoured  by  the  proximity  of 
the  guano  islands  ; the  ready  supply  of  fertilisers  has 
rendered  unnecessary  the  old  system  of  allowing  land 
to  lie  fallow  for  a year. 

There  are  drawbacks,  however,  even  in  this  favoured 
region.  Shortage  of  water  has  been  mentioned  ; short- 
age of  labour  is  also  a source  of  difficulty — to  some 
extent  met  by  the  importation  of  indentured  Japanese 
coolies.  In  the  past,  too  large  tracts  were  in  the  posses- 
sion of  single  proprietors,  who  left  much  land  unculti- 
vated from  lack  of  enterprise  or  capital.  Various  systems 
of  sub-letting  have  partially  eliminated  this  feature ; 
but  it  remains  true  that  most  of  the  best  land  is  held 
in  large  estates. 

The  Government  foster  agriculture  in  various  practical 
ways.  A National  School  of  Agriculture  and  Veterinary 
Science  was  established  at  Lima  in  1902.  A monthly 
bulletin  and  numerous  educational  papers  and  pamphlets 
are  issued  by  the  Ministry  of  Fomento.  An  experi- 
mental station,  with  a large  number  of  acres  under 
cultivation  has  been  established  at  Santa  Beatriz,  near 
Lima,  to  study  the  various  crops  grown  in  the  country  ; 
and  another  at  Chancay  is  devoted  to  the  study  of 
cotton  plants.  Seeds  and  special  plants  are  imported, 
and  assistance  is  given  to  cultivators  against  pests, 
blight,  etc.  There  is  a School  of  Botany  at  Lima  ; and 
a large  and  flourishing  National  Society  of  Agriculture, 
which  issues  a weekly  newspaper,  El  Agricultor  Peruano. 
As  a result,  the  large  haciendas  are  mostly  under  the 
direction  of  scientifically-trained  and  qualified  managers. 

The  principal  crops  cultivated  in  Peru  are — 


AGRICULTURE 


145 


Sugar. — Sugar  is  grown  up  to  4,500  ft.  above  sea- 
level  in  the  west  of  the  country,  and  up  to  6,000  ft.  east 
of  the  Andes.  The  total  production  is  not  far  short  of 
200,000  tons  per  annum,  and  the  home  consumption  is 
about  30,000  tons.  The  best  is  grown  in  the  northern 
coast  valleys,  in  the  departments  of  Lambayeque,  La 
Libertad,  and  Lima ; the  largest  estates  are  in  the 
valleys  of  Chicama  and  Canete.  The  acreage  is  under 
200,000,  about  half  of  which  is  planted  with  cane. 

The  cane  grows  to  a height  of  8-10  ft.  in  about  eighteen 
months,  when  cutting  begins.  The  product  per  acre, 
both  in  weight  of  cane  and  in  proportion  of  sugar,  is 
easily  the  best  in  the  world,  being  about  double  that  of 
Java;  the  proportion  of  sugar  is  over  14  per  cent. 
There  are  usually  three  crops,  but  cutting  is  practically 
continuous.  The  total  annual  value  is  about  £2,000,000. 

Cotton. — Cotton  is  indigenous  to  the  country,  and 
has  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial.  The  prin- 
cipal plantations  are  in  the  departments  of  Piura,  lea, 
and  Lima ; the  area  under  cultivation  is  increasing. 
Several  varieties  are  grown  : (1)  the  native  Peruvian,  or 
vegetable  wool  ( Gossypium  peruvianum),  in  lea  and 
Piura  ; (2)  the  Egyptian  ( G . herbaceum),  in  lea  and  Lima  ; 
(3)  the  sea-island  ( G . barbadense)  and  the  Peruvian 
Mitafi.fi,  near  Huacho  and  Supe ; (4)  smooth  cotton 

from  American  seed.  The  first  of  these  grows  to  a 
height  of  10  to  16  ft.,  and  gives  a first,  but  small,  crop 
eight  months  after  sowing ; the  crop  increases  each 
year  up  to  the  sixth.  The  plant  stands  drought  well, 
and  requires  but  one  watering.  The  trees  are  planted 
at  intervals  of  about  15  ft.,  the  interspace  being  occupied 


146 


PERU 


with  vegetables  and  maize  ; no  ploughing  is  needed. 
Two  crops  a year  are  obtained  : in  June-Oct.  and  Jan- 
March.  The  product,  known  under  the  names  of  “ full 
rough  ” and  “ moderate  rough,”  is  mixed  with  wool  in 
the  manufacture  of  woollen  textiles. 

The  Egyptian  cotton  grows  to  a height  of  about  4 ft., 
and  yields  for  two  or  sometimes  three  years,  beginning 
six  months  after  sowing.  It  needs  several  waterings, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  is  entirely  free  from  weevil-blight. 

These  two  varieties  are  chiefly  grown  at  present. 

Peru  ranks  twelfth  among  the  cotton-producing 
countries  of  the  world.  Increase  of  production  is  merely 
a matter  of  irrigation,  other  conditions  being  as 
favourable  as  those  of  Egypt. 

Rice. — Rice  is  essentially  a coast  crop,  grown  chiefly 
in  Lambayeque  and  the  Pacasmayo  valley  of  La  Libertad. 
It  is  of  good,  but  variable,  quality,  depending  on  the 
advance  or  delay  in  the  floods  of  the  rivers  in  Spring. 
The  crop,  which  matures  five  months  after  planting, 
averages  from  25,000  to  30,000  tons,  with  a value  of 
about  £500,000,  A periodical  flooding  of  the  fields  is 
necessary,  but  little  ploughing.  Two  varieties  are  grown  : 
“ Carolina  ” and  Jamaican.  No  industrial  use  as  yet  is 
made  of  the  straw.  Three  crops  per  annum  are  usually 
obtained.  The  quantity  grown  is  insufficient  to  satisfy 
the  home  market,  though  about  one-tenth  is  exported 
to  neighbouring  countries. 

Maize. — The  finest  maize  in  the  world  is  grown  in  Peru. 
It  is  an  indigenous  product,  cultivated,  like  potatoes  and 
cotton,  from  time  immemorial.  It  is  grown  in  all  parts 
of  the  country  up  to  a height  of  11,500  ft.,  and  is  one  of 


Market,  Huancayo 


AGRICULTURE 


147 


the  mainstays  of  the  country  ; the  grain  is  used  as  food 
for  both  man  and  beast,  and  the  stalks  are  used  as  fodder. 
Three,  and  occasionally  four,  crops  are  reaped  annually. 
It  is  all  consumed  in  Peru.  The  finest  quality  is  grown 
in  Cuzco,  where  the  grains  are  of  the  size  of  large  beans. 
On  the  coast,  the  district  of  Chancay  in  Lima,  is  famous, 
and  produces  about  10,000  tons  per  annum. 

Potatoes. — The  potato  is  an  indigenous  product, 
probably  developed  from  a bitter  tuber  still  found  wild. 
It  is  grown  in  great  perfection  all  over  the  sierra  depart- 
ments up  to,  and  even  beyond,  a height  of  13,000  ft. 
With  maize,  it  forms  the  chief  food  of  the  Cholo  Indians. 
Two  crops  annually  are  gathered. 

The  yam  (three  crops  annually),  manioc  (one  crop), 
and  other  tuberous  plants  are  also  cultivated. 

Cereals. — Cereal  crops — wheat,  barley,  oats — are 
grown  at  heights  from  5,000  to  11,500  ft.  Among  these 
we  may  particularise  Alfalfa  or  Lucerne,  used  largely  for 
fodder,  and  Quinua,  an  indigenous  plant,  much  used  by 
both  Indians  and  whites  ; the  latter  is  very  prolific,  and 
grows  freely  in  poor  soils  to  a height  of  13,500  ft. 

Coffee. — The  best  coffee  is  grown  in  the  sierra,  in  the 
districts  of  Choquisongo  and  Carabaya  (Puno),  Chan- 
chamayo  and  Perene  (Junin),  Paucartambo  (Cuzco)  and 
Huanuco.  On  the  coast,  the  best  district  is  that  of 
Pacasmayo. 

Five  hundred  plants  are  set  per  hectare  of  ground  ; 
two  crops  are  gathered  annually,  averaging  1 lb.  for  each 
tree  in  its  third  year  (or  800  to  1 ,000  lb.  per  acre). 

In  one  colony  at  Chanchamayo,  there  are  thirty-three 
coffee  plantations,  with  1,700  acres — “ 2,000,000  trees.” 


148 


PERU 


The  supply  is  enough  for  home  needs,  and  no  coffee  is 
imported.  The  export  is  small,  and  admits  of  great 
development.  The  Peruvian  Corporation  owns  a con- 
cession of  2,750,000  acres,  less  than  half  of  which  is  at 
present  cultivated. 

Grapes. — Grapes  and  other  fruits  can  be  grown  all 
along  the  coast  valleys  ; the  chief  vineyards  are  from 
Lima  southwards  to  Moquegua.  The  best  are  in  the 
Campina,  near  Chincha  Alta  (lea).  Though  the  vine  was 
certainly  introduced  as  early  as  1557,  and  the  crop  is, 
even  in  bad  years,  superior  to  the  average  European 
crop,  yet  viticulture  has  been  till  recently  much  neglected. 
The  vineyards  are  usually  small  and  attached  to  haciendas 
growing  other  crops.  The  grapes  are  grown  on  stocks, 
planted  in  September,  about  8 ft.  apart,  and  supported 
at  first  on  wild  canes  ; later,  trellises  of  bamboo  or  willow 
are  put  up,  resting  on  adobe  columns.  The  average 
yield  is  900  gallons  of  wine  per  acre. 

Of  late  years,  foreign  cuttings  have  been  imported 
and  the  culture  improved.  The  chief  varieties  are  the 
Italia  and  Albilla  for  white  wines,  and  Quebranta, 
Moscatel,  Negar,  and  Moyar  for  red  wines  ; a pink 
Italia  gives  an  admirable  fruit  for  the  table.  The  Que- 
branta is  the  most  prolific,  and  is  grown  in  almost  all 
the  wine-districts.  (For  the  production  of  wine  and 
spirits,  see  under  Manufactures.) 

Fruit. — There  are  many  other  fruits  which  grow  in 
great  abundance  in  the  valleys  throughout  Peru  (see 
under  Flora),  but  little  attention  has  been  yet  devoted 
to  their  production  on  a large  commercial  scale. 

Olives. — The  olive  was  imported  from  Seville  in  the 


AGRICULTURE 


149 


sixteenth  century,  and  found  in  Peru  conditions  which 
suited  it  admirably.  It  is  thoroughly  acclimatised,  and 
excels  those  of  Seville  and  California.  Nevertheless,  no 
great  attention  has  been  paid  to  it.  About  70,000  lb. 
are  exported  annually.  The  yield  of  oil  is  about  30  per 
cent.,  and  the  supply  is  insufficient  to  meet  the  demands 
of  the  home  market.  With  further  plantation,  and  the 
introduction  of  modern  methods  and  machinery,  great 
possibilities  of  development  in  the  oil  trade  exist. 

Tobacco. — Tobacco  is  grown  both  on  the  coast  and 
in  the  montana,  but  only  in  small  plantations,  and  by 
primitive  and  unskilled  methods.  From  five  to  eight 
crops  are  gathered  annually ; the  total  yield  of  the 
country  is  probably  about  1,000  tons.  The  best  grades 
are  grown  at  Jaen,  Tumbes,  Jeberos,  and  Huancabamba. 
This  is  a crop  which  offers  very  great  possibilities  of 
profitable  development  in  the  future. 

Coca. — Coca,  a forest  product  indigenous  to  Peru  and 
Bolivia,  is  cultivated  in  numerous  plantations  in  the 
sierra  departments  of  Cuzco,  Huanuco,  and  Junin. 
Yauyos  (Lima)  and  Otusco  (La  Libertad)  are  the  only 
parts  of  the  “ coast  ” district  where  it  is  largely  grown. 
It  is  grown  in  warm  valleys  at  an  elevation  of  3,500  to 
7,000  ft.,  with  temperature  averaging  50-80°  Fahr.  The 
soil  should  be  clayey,  with  iron,  but  no  salts.  The  plant 
requires  frequent  rain,  but  not  marshy  ground,  and  is 
grown  on  the  slopes  of  the  valleys.  Three  or  four  crops 
are  reaped  annually,  the  first  eighteen  months  after 
planting  ; the  yield  continues  for  forty  years.  Consider- 
able care  is  needed  both  in  plucking  and  in  preserving 
the  leaves. 


ii— (2247) 


150 


PERU 


There  is  a large  export  both  of  leaves  and  of  cocaine, 
but  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  total  produce  of  coca, 
as  the  home  consumption  by  the  Indians  is  very  large. 

Cocoa. — Cocoa  grows  wild  in  the  montana,  and  is 
doubtless  one  of  the  crops  naturally  suited  to  that  region, 
and  one  which  will  be  planted  extensively  there  in  the 
future.  At  present,  the  best  cocoa  is  grown  in  the 
department  of  Cuzco.  It  is  practically  all  consumed 
in  the  country.  Planting  is  extending  in  the  Perene 
valley  (Junin),  where  some  200,000  trees  have  been 
recently  set.  The  crop  is  continuous  throughout  the 
year. 

Miscellaneous. — Among  minor  crops  may  be  men- 
tioned Ramie  or  China  grass  ; haricot  beans  (each  of 
these  gives  four  crops  annually)  ; flax  and  hemp  (two 
crops  annually)  ; bananas  (chiefly  in  the  montana) ; the 
castor-oil  plant  ( higuerilla ) ; and  mulberry  trees  for 
silkworm  culture. 

Forest  Products. — With  the  exception  of  rubber  and 
vegetable  ivory  or  tagua,  there  is  as  yet  hardly  any  com- 
mercial exploitation  of  the  forest  wealth  of  Peru.  The 
exportation  of  Peruvian  or  Chinchona  bark,  formerly 
large,  has  practically  disappeared  ; the  prevailing  varie- 
ties were  the  “ royal  ” or  yellow  bark,  near  Carabaya 
(Puno),  and  the  grey  bark,  in  Huanuco.  The  trees  have 
been  exterminated  in  some  districts  by  reckless  methods 
of  gathering.  The  production  of  sarsaparilla  has  similarly 
dwindled  ; nor  is  much  use  yet  made  of  the  numerous 
dyewoods,  tanning  barks,  and  timber  trees  of  the 
montana. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  export  of  “ vegetable  ivory  ” 


AGRICULTURE 


151 


has  sprung  up  very  rapidly  of  recent  years,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  following  table — 


The  material  is  used  in  Europe  for  manufacturing 
buttons,  toys,  and  inlaid  work.  The  palm,  which  bears 
three  nuts,  is  not  cultivated,  but  grows  wild  ; the  nuts 
are  gathered  by  Indians  and  transported  to  Iquitos,  and 
thence  to  Europe.  The  tree  is  the  Phytelephas  macro- 
carpa,  and  the  nuts  are  known  as  ” tagua,”  " Corozo,” 
or  “ Marfil  vegetal.”  In  the  forest  they  are  used  for 
curing  rubber. 

India-rubber.  In  the  Amazon  region,  as  in  the  tropics 
generally,  there  are  hundreds  of  different  trees,  shrubs, 
and  vines  that  produce  rubber ; but  of  these  only  a 
few  produce  it  in  a form  and  on  a scale  commercially 
profitable.  The  Peruvian  montana  furnishes  two  kinds 
of  rubber,  viz.  : (a)  the  fine  rubber  (jebe),  known  com- 
mercially as  Par&,  produced  by  several  species  of  Hevea 
trees  ; and  ( b ) the  inferior  ( caucho ),  produced  mainly  by 
the  Castilloa  elastica.  In  the  former,  incisions  are  made 
round  the  trunk  at  regular  intervals,  and  the  milk  or 
latex  is  collected  in  little  tin  cups.  The  trees  grow  in 
groups  of  50  to  100  or  150  in  a small  area  ; such  a group 
is  known  as  an  estrada,  and  is  worked  by  one  collector 
or  shiringuero.  The  best  latex  is  violet  in  hue,  inferior 
kinds  being  red  or  whitish.  The  trees,  so  treated,  bear 
year  after  year,  for  twenty  years,  an  average  of  about 


Kilos. 


1907 

1908 

1910 

1911 

1912 


374 

3,774 

79,300 


449,585 

1,185,674 


152 


PERU 


20  lb.  The  rubber  is  poured  into  a long-handled  mould 
and  “ cured  ” by  being  revolved  in  the  smoke  of  a fire 
made  of  “ humiro  ” or  tagua  nuts,  and  is  exported  in  balls. 

The  inferior  rubber,  or  caucho,  was  formerly  obtained 
by  completely  felling  the  tree,  a wasteful  method  now 
forbidden  by  law.  The  milk  flowed  into  a hole  in  the 
ground,  and  was  coagulated  by  means  of  a solution  of 
soap  and  a native  plant,  vetilla.  It  was  exported  in  the 
form  of  planks,  known  as  Peruvian  slab.  About  100  lb. 
would  be  yielded  by  each  tree  felled. 

Sometimes,  in  both  species  of  trees,  long  channels  are 
cut  in  the  bark,  and  the  exuding  juice  is  allowed  to 
coagulate  naturally.  The  resulting  ribbons  of  rubber 
are  rolled  in  balls,  known  as  Sernamby  de  jebe  and 
Sernamby  de  Caucho  respectively. 

The  tables  shown  on  next  page,  from  the  Consular 
Report  for  1912,  illustrate  the  volume  of  the  Peruvian 
rubber  trade  and  the  classes  of  rubber  produced. 

Rubber  is  collected  in  Peru  from  the  trees  growing 
naturally  in  the  forests  ; there  has  been  as  yet  no  planta- 
tion. The  quality  is  equal  to  that  obtained  in  any  part 
of  the  world,  and  is  for  some  purposes  indispensable ; 
and  the  quantity  appears  inexhaustible.  Though  the 
distances  are  great,  the  natural  system  of  waterways 
furnishes  a cheap  and  easy  means  of  transport.  The 
condition  of  the  trade,  however,  is  far  from  healthy,  and 
a Commission  was  recently  appointed  by  the  President 
to  propose  measures  of  amelioration.  There  are  frequent 
and  extreme  variations  in  prices  ; heavy  export  duties 
are  imposed  (8  per  cent,  ad  valorem  generally  ; but  4 per 
cent,  for  rubber  from  the  Javary,  which  might  also  be 


AGRICULTURE 


153 


Exports  of  Rubber  from  Iquitos,  1907-12 

Kilos. 

1907  2,896,407 

1908  2,385,152 

1909  2,522,066 

1910  2,294,191 

1911  2,081,887 

1912  2,813,964 


Classification  and  Destination  of  Rubber  Exported 
from  Iquitos  in  1912 


Havre. 

Liverpool. 

Hamburg. 

New  York. 

Fine  Rubber 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

[jebe)  . . 

318,206 

434,923 

75,908 

42,898 

Entrefine 

26,494 

39,977 

1,681 

1,692 

Weak  fine 

144,081 

318,734 

146,235 

38,228 

Sernamby  de  jebe 

150,634 

169,834 

27,257 

14,407 

Caucho  . . 
Sernamby  de 

35,578 

14,278 

256 

4,631 

Caucho 

359,374 

334,740 

74,496 

37,422 

Total 

1,034,367 

1,312,486 

327,833 

139,278 

sent  to  Man&os  instead  of  to  Iquitos) ; these  duties  are 
levied  in  gold  in  advance,  and  are  based  on  Liverpool 
prices,  the  result  being  that  the  business  is  extremely 
speculative.  Again,  it  is  run  entirely  on  a credit  basis  ; 
the  collectors  receive  advances  in  kind  from  the  patron  or 
company  ; the  patron  obtains  supplies  on  credit  from 
commercial  firms  at  Iquitos,  and  these,  in  turn,  from 
European  houses.  Among  suggested  reforms  are  (1) 
reduction  of  export  duties  ; (2)  greater  care  in  preparing 
the  rubber  for  export,  thus  reducing  cost  of  packing  and 
freight ; (3)  introduction  of  planting  ; (4)  offering  induce- 
ments to  the  labourers  to  work  the  whole  year  round, 
instead  of  five  or  six  months  only. 


154 


PERU 


The  recent  revelations  concerning  rubber-gathering  on 
the  Putumayo  have  shown  that  in  Peru,  as  in  Brazil  and 
on  the  Congo,  the  business  has  been  attended  by  fright- 
ful maltreatment  of  the  natives  ; this  fact  alone  is  a 
strong  argument  for  the  substitution,  in  place  of  the 
present  forest  collection,  of  plantations  where  Govern- 
ment supervision  would  be  more  feasible  than  it  is 
now. 

Guano. — Guano,  the  excreta  of  fish-eating  sea-fowl,  is 
an  exceedingly  valuable  general  fertiliser,  largely  nitro- 
genous and  phosphatic  in  composition,  but  containing 
numerous  salts  and  other  constituents.  The  immense 
numbers  of  the  sea  birds  on  the  west  coast  of  America, 
has  resulted  in  vast  deposits  of  guano  being  formed  on 
the  coasts  and  on  the  desert  islands  just  off  the  coast. 
The  peculiar  value  of  the  Peruvian  deposits  is  derived 
from  the  rainlessness  of  the  climate,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  nitrogenous  elements  remain  undissolved  to 
the  extent  of  13-14  per  cent. 

Guano,  long  used  by  the  Incas  and  Spaniards  in  agri- 
culture (under  the  Inca  regime,  it  was  State  property), 
was  introduced  to  the  notice  of  Europe  by  Humboldt  in 
1804.  For  many  years  the  great  deposits  of  the  Chincha 
Islands  formed  a source  of  easy  wealth  for  Peru.  It  has 
been  calculated  that  from  1841  to  1879  over  12,000,000 
tons  were  exported,  with  a net  profit  to  the  State  of 
nearly  £80,000,000.  President  Billinghurst,  in  his 
message  to  Congress  of  1913,  stated  that  a prolonged 
study  of  the  administration  of  these  revenues  results  in 
the  conclusion  that  the  only  justifiable  investments  made 
were  the  following  : — 


AGRICULTURE 


155 


Twenty  Warships  ..  ..  ..  1,000,000 

The  Penitentiary  . . . . . . 176,000 

Exhibition  Garden  and  Palace  . . 600,000 

Balta  Bridge  . . . . . . 60,000 


or  a total  of  £1,836,000.  In  other  words,  £78,000,000 
were  lost  through  prodigal  and  corrupt  administration  ; 
and,  in  spite  of  this  great  annual  revenue,  recourse  was 
had  to  foreign  loans  at  high  interest  to  build  the  railways 
of  the  country. 

Much  of  the  guano  ground  was  lost  by  the  war  with 
Chile  ; and  in  1890  cession  was  made  to  the  foreign 
bondholders  of  guano  in  Peruvian  territory,  up  to 
3,000,000  English  tons,  a quantity  afterwards  reduced 
to  2,000,000,  together  with  the  surplus  of  50  per  cent, 
of  the  guano  of  the  Lobos  Islands  after  the  liquidation 
of  the  account  between  Peru  and  Chile.  The  exports 
of  guano  by  the  Peruvian  Corporation  have  been  as 
follows — 


Tons. 

1891-1895  

166,877 

1896-1900  

122,739 

1901-1905  

350,169 

1906-1910  

382,151 

1911-1913  (April) 

112,982 

1,134,918 

proceeds  of  the  above  were — 

£ 

1892-1896  

376,133 

1897-1901  

322,886 

1902-1906  

808,477 

1907-1911  

712,457 

1912  

141,143 

2,361,096 

156 


PERU 


For  home  use,  Peru  has  obtained,  from  1896  to  1912, 
some  373,860  tons  of  guano. 

As  the  export  in  1883  reached  a total  of  £807,600,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  output  has  greatly  diminished. 
This  is  due  partly  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  southern 
deposits  and  the  disturbance  of  the  breeding  grounds. 
The  export  is  now  mainly  from  the  more  northerly 
islands,  such  as  Guar.api,  Macabi,  Malabrigo,  and  the 
Lobos  groups.  Protection,  where  necessary,  is  now 
afforded  to  the  birds. 

Land  Tenure  and  Colonisation. — The  Constitution 
enacts  that  any  foreigner  may  acquire  territorial  pro- 
perty in  the  republic  according  to  law,  under  precisely 
the  same  obligations  and  conditions  as  the  native 
Peruvian  citizen.  Laws  of  Congress  passed  in  1898, 
1909,  and  1910  have  specifically  contemplated  and  pro- 
vided for  the  establishment  of  colonies  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country.  The  Executive  is  authorised  to 
use  certain  State  lands  for  this  purpose,  selling  or  letting 
them  to  individuals  or  corporations  for  purposes  of  agri- 
culture, manufacture,  or  mining,  or  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  works  of  public  utility,  such  as  irrigation  and 
the  building  of  roads  and  railways.  The  grants  made 
under  these  laws  have  been  made  hitherto  not  so  much 
for  the  furtherance  of  agriculture  and  colonisation,  as  for 
these  latter  objects. 

In  earlier  times,  a British  colony  was  planted  at 
Chanchamayo,  and  a German  one  at  Pozuzo  ; but  these 
efforts  were  hampered  by  difficulties  of  communication, 
and  were  hardly  successful.  Profits  were  swallowed  up 
by  the  cost  of  transport.  Of  late  years,  vigorous  efforts 


AGRICULTURE 


157 


have  been  made  to  develop  the  southern  montana.  (See 
Madre  de  Dios  in  the  List  of  Departments.) 

The  cultivable  coast  lands  are  mainly  held  by  large 
companies  or  wealthy  proprietors  ; in  other  cases,  they 
are  owned  by  communities,  whose  title  reaches  back  to 
the  pre-Inca  period  of  the  Chimus.  Undeveloped  State 
lands  in  this  region  may  be  sold  or  granted  on  terms 
based  on  the  ensuing  benefit  to  the  country ; irrigation 
is  especially  encouraged.  There  is  no  opening  here  for 
the  intending  colonist,  unless  he  is  possessed  of  both 
ample  means  and  experience. 

In  the  case  of  sugar  and  cotton  growing,  partnerships 
are  often  arranged  between  the  smaller  cultivator  and 
the  capitalist  factory  owner,  on  conditions  such  as  the 
following  : The  capitalist  provides  land  and  water- 

supply,  taking,  in  return,  one-quarter  of  the  crop  ; or 
he  provides,  in  addition,  seed,  tools,  oxen,  etc.,  receiving 
one-half.1  If  a money  rent  is  paid,  it  averages  in  such 
cases  8s.  6d.  to  14s.  per  acre  annually,  according  to  the 
amount  supplied  by  the  owner. 

In  the  sierra  region  the  desirable  land  in  the  valleys 
has  been  long  occupied.  In  the  rocky  highlands  of  the 
Andes  the  Cholo  Indians  retain  the  small  freehold  hold- 
ings (known  as  chacaras),  which  they  have  cultivated  for 
generations  ; often  they  have  been  created  by  banking 
up  terrace-gardens  in  almost  inaccessible  positions  and 
carrying  the  soil  there.  These  possessions — too  poor, 
perhaps,  to  excite  the  avarice  of  the  Spaniard— are  now 
secured  by  law  to  the  peasantry.  In  this  region  there 

1 This  is,  approximately,  the  system  adopted  for  the  growth 
of  coffee  and  cocoa  in  the  Perene  colony  of  the  Peruvian 

Corporation. 


158 


PERU 


is  even  less  opening  for  the  intending  colonist,  who  must 
look  rather  to  the  higher  and  more  accessible  valleys  of 
the  montana. 

Concessions  of  montana  land  are  made  (1)  as  free 
grants ; (2)  as  freehold  property,  at  about  10s.  per 
hectare  ( i.e .,  2£  acres) ; (3)  as  tenancies  held  from  the 
State  at  a rental  of  2s.  per  hectare.  Grants  are  per- 
petual, subject  to  an  annual  tax  of  2£d.  per  hectare. 
Fertile  land  in  very  beautiful  sub-tropical  country  may 
be  acquired  at  a low  cost ; living,  too,  is  cheap.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  population  is  very  scanty,  and 
means  of  communication  few  and  costly.  The  European 
colonist,  of  course,  would  only  settle  in  the  higher  part 
of  the  montana,  where  the  elevation  above  sea-level 
mitigates  the  climatic  conditions. 

Grazing  and  Cattle-breeding. — The  grazing  and 
live-stock  industry  of  the  sierra  region  is  important  and 
flourishing.  It  is  carried  on  throughout  the  whole 
length  of  the  country  from  Tumbes  to  Puno,  at  suitable 
elevations,  up  to  13,000  ft.  or  more.  Pasturage  for 
sheep,  and  in  the  winter  for  cattle  also,  begins  in  the 
foothills  ( lomas ) of  the  coast  region ; but  the  large 
ranches  are  to  be  found  only  in  the  sierra  uplands,  where 
abundant  natural  pasturage  is  to  be  found.  Some  of 
these  ranches  have  20,000  head  of  cattle  and  50,000 
sheep.  Generally  speaking,  the  cattle  are  bony,  but  not 
large,  the  cows  yielding  milk  of  rich  quality,  but  small 
in  quantity.  The  sheep  are  smallish,  with  long  legs,  and 
are  shorn  once  in  two  or  three  years.  The  industry  is 
sufficiently  large,  not  only  to  supply  the  needs  of  the 
whole  country  in  meat  and  wool,  but  also  to  export  a 


AGRICULTURE 


159 


considerable  quantity  abroad.  These  exports  amounted, 
in  1911,  to  over  £633,000;  the  largest  item  was  wool 
(£481,845),  including  that  of  the  alpaca,  the  sheep,  and 
the  llama,  in  descending  order.  Other  items  were  hides, 
goat-skins,  cattle,  horns,  live  animals,  parchment,  tallow, 
lard,  and  horsehair.  Swine  are  largely  bred  and,  with 
lard,  exported  from  Chancay,  in  the  department  of 
Lima.  The  Cholo  Indians  of  the  sierras  are  excellent 
shepherds,  and  from  a tradition  of  many  generations  are 
very  expert  in  the  breeding  and  management  of  the 
llama  and  alpaca.  (These  animals  and  the  other  members 
of  the  family  are  described  under  Fauna.)  Other  domestic 
animals  have  been  imported  and  acclimatised  from 
Europe  ; more  cross-breeding  with  foreign  animals  is 
needed  to  improve  their  strains. 


CHAPTER  XII 


MINING  AND  MINERALS — MINING  LAWS 

Mining  and  Minerals. — The  mineral  resources  of  Peru 
are  of  extraordinary  extent  and  variety,  and  her  produc- 
tion of  gold  and  silver  has  long  been  famous.  Judged 
from  the  point  of  view  of  exports,  the  most  important  of 
these  products  are  : Copper,  silver,  vanadium,  petroleum, 
lead,  borax,  gold,  coal,  and  salt.  Others,  less  important 
commercially,  but  known  to  exist  in  considerable  quantity, 
are  antimony,  sulphur,  bismuth,  quicksilver,  nickel,  zinc, 
iron,  cobalt,  wolfram,  molybdenite,  graphite,  magnesia, 
manganese,  mica ; also  marbles,  alabaster,  porphyry, 
jasper,  gypsum,  kaolin  clay,  and  ochres.  Tin  is  not 
known  in  Peru,  but  is  found  in  abundance  near  the 
Peruvian  border  in  Bolivia,  to  the  east  of  L.  Titicaca. 

Gold  was  worked  and  possessed  in  very  large  quantities 
by  the  Incas.  It  was  the  discovery  of  this  wealth  that 
led  to  the  Spanish  conquest  of  the  country  and  the  over- 
throw of  the  indigenous  civilisation  of  Peru.  The  Incas 
probably  obtained  their  gold  mainly  from  alluvial  deposits ; 
they  mined  silver,  lead,  and  copper,  and  smelted  these 
ores  in  primitive  furnaces. 

During  the  Colonial  period  the  Spaniards  pressed  with 
great  avidity  the  winning  of  the  precious  metals — gold, 
silver,  and  quicksilver.  By  the  law  of  Mita,  the  Indians 
within  30  miles  of  a mine  were  drawn  by  lot  for  forced 
service  underground  for  a period  of  six  months,  and  it 
is  believed  that  about  80  per  cent,  perished  within  the 
period. 


160 


Pack  Llamas,  for  transporting  minerals 


MINING  AND  MINERALS 


161 


About  1,400  mines  were  in  operation,  among  them  the 
famous  quicksilver  mine  of  Huancavelica.  This  period 
closed  with  the  Wars  of  Liberation,  which  were  followed 
by  recurrent  revolutions. 

The  abolition  of  slavery  in  1855  stopped  the  supply 
of  forced  labour  ; and  the  Government  turned,  for  a 
source  of  easy  profit,  from  mining  to  the  exploitation  of 
the  great  supplies  of  guano  and  nitrate  found  on  or  near 
the  coast. 

In  1876  a new  mining  code  was  issued,  and  a National 
School  of  Mines  was  founded  at  Lima,  which  has  among 
its  objects  the  systematic  survey  of  the  mineral  wealth 
of  the  country.  The  development  of  mining  which 
appeared  to  be  starting  was  checked  by  the  war  with 
Chile,  and  has  only  within  recent  years  revived.  The 
chief  points  in  this  later  movement  are  the  extension  of 
railways,  the  foundation  of  American  works  on  a large 
scale  in  Cerro  de  Pasco,  and  the  issue  of  a new  Mining 
Code  in  1901.  The  bulk  of  the  minerals  lie  in  the  Andine 
region,  occupying  an  area  of  some  1,500  miles  long  and 
200  to  300  miles  broad.  The  great  elevation  and  inacces- 
sibility of  this  region,  and  the  difficulties  of  transport, 
have  been  great  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  mining. 
The  two  chief  railways  of  Peru  now  penetrate  into  the 
inter- Andine  district,  and  the  linking  up  of  the  railway 
system  will  in  the  future  enhance  enormously  the 
possibilities  of  the  industry. 

Copper  occurs  throughout  the  region  from  Cajamarca 
to  Cuzco.  It  is  chiefly  exploited  by  the  American  Cerro 
de  Pasco  Mining  Co.  The  ores  are,  for  the  most  part, 
grey  copper  and  iron  pyrites,  with  a considerable 


162 


PERU 


admixture  of  gold  and  silver.  Large  smelting  works  are 
in  operation  at  the  Cerro  and  at  Casapalca,  and  smaller 
establishments  at  Yauli,  Huallanca,  and  Huinac.  The 
output  has  risen  from  1,000  tons  in  1897  to  27,734  tons 
metric  (£1,411,416)  in  1911.  A detailed  report  of  the 
mines  in  the  Cerro  district  is  quoted  below. 

Silver  is  abundant,  especially  on  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Andes.  The  chief  districts  are  Salpo,  Hualgayoc, 
Huari,  Huallanca,  Huaylas,  Huaras,  Recuay,  Cajatambo, 
Yauli,  Cerro  de  Pasco,  Morococha,  Huarochiri,  Huan- 
cavelica,  Quispisisa,  Castrovirreina,  Lucanas,  Lampa, 
Caylloma,  and  Puno.  The  ores  are  red  oxides,  sulphides, 
and  galena  or  silver-lead.  A good  deal  is  treated  by 
lixiviation  and  amalgamation  with  quicksilver  in  small 
local  works,  but  much  is  exported  for  smelting  and 
refining.  One  of  the  largest  lodes  is  that  of  Carahuacra, 
over  3 miles  long,  and  occasionally  100  ft.  thick.  The 
output  in  1911  was  289,383  kg.  (£926,713). 

Vanadium,  a recent  product,  is  now  obtained  in  large 
quantities  at  Cerro  de  Pasco  and  exported  to  America. 
Output  in  1911  was  2,251  m.  tons  (£215,000). 

Petroleum  is  found  (1)  in  Tumbes  ; (2)  at  Talara  and 
Zorritos,  in  Piura  ; and  (3)  near  L.  Titicaca,  in  Puno. 
The  output,  steadily  increasing,  in  1911  was  195,276  m. 
tons  (£785,071). 

Lead  is  found  in  all  the  silver-bearing  districts,  chiefly 
as  galena,  accompanied  by  silver  and  sometimes  by  gold. 
As  the  cost  of  transport  to  the  coast  is  at  present  pro- 
hibitive, it  is  treated  almost  entirely  for  the  extraction 
of  silver.  Output  in  1911  was  2,209  m.  tons  (£12,541). 

Borax,  together  with  mica  and  sulphur,  is  found  in  the 


MINING  AND  MINERALS 


163 


districts  of  Sechura  (Piura),  Camana,  and  Arequipa 
(Arequipa).  Output  in  1911  was  1,923  m.  tons 
(£24,867) . 

Gold  is  obtained  in  two  forms,  either  from  alluvial 
deposits,  or  in  the  form  of  ores,  usually  mixed  with 
copper,  silver,  iron,  etc.  The  principal  alluvial  districts 
— situated  on  the  Amazon  watershed — are  in  the  Sandia 
and  Carabaya  provinces  of  Puno  ; in  Paucartambo  and 
Quispicanchi  (Cuzco)  ; Aymaraes  and  Antabamba  (Apu- 
rimac) ; Huanuco ; Pataz  and  Chuquibamba  on  the 
Upper  Maranon  ; and  near  the  rapids  of  Manseriche. 
The  metal  is  found  in  river-beds,  in  plains  of  auriferous 
soil,  and  in  large  banks  or  moraines  of  gravel,  such  as 
occur  at  Poto  and  Aporoma  in  the  Sandia  province  of 
Puno.  Most  of  these  are  at  present  unworked,  or  only 
casually  worked  by  the  Indians  ; but  at  Poto  a few 
hydraulic  “ monitors  ” are  installed. 

Gold  ores,  usually  in  ferruginous  quartz,  are  found 
(1)  on  the  west  side  of  the  Andes,  at  Salpo,  Otusco, 
Huailas,  Yungay,  Canete,  lea,  Nasca,  Andaray,  Arequipa, 
and  elsewhere  ; and  (2)  on  the  plateaux  and  eastern 
Andean  slopes  from  Pataz  to  Puno.  The  old  workings, 
found  throughout  the  region,  were  never  deep,  and  the 
methods  of  exploitation  were  primitive  ; the  ores  are 
crushed  by  hand  labour  in  stone  mills  or  basins  called 
kimbaletes,  and  treated  with  quicksilver.  It  is  probable 
that  deep  workings  with  powerful  crushing  machinery 
would,  in  proved  districts,  result  in  profitable  working. 

British  companies  hold  concessions  at  Andaray,  Chuqui- 
tambo,  Aporoma,  and  Inambari.  Peruvian  companies 
at  Andaray,  Cotabambas,  and  Pataz  ; and  an  American 


164 


PERU 


company  at  Santo  Domingo.  Output  in  1911  was 
741  kg.  (£101,152). 

Coal,  both  bituminous  and  anthracite,  is  found  (a) 
in  the  Andes  ; and  ( b ) on  the  coast  near  Piura,  Salaverry, 
Chimbote,  Huarmey,  and  Pisco.  Immense  quantities 
exist ; and  while  the  coalfields  on  the  coast  appears  to 
offer  a good  chance  of  commercial  exploitation,  those 
inland  will  prove  of  service  for  railway,  mining,  and 
manufacturing  purposes.  The  output,  at  present 
insignificant,  is  324,000  m.  tons  (£194,155). 

Salt  is  found  in  various  forms  in  Tumbes,  Lima, 
Huancavelica,  Cuzco,  lea,  Puno,  Arequipa,  and 
Moquegua.  It  is  mainly  worked  at  present  at  the 
salinas  or  salt-works  of  Huacho,  in  the  department  of 
Lima.  Output  in  1911  was  24,867  m.  tons  (£24,867). 

Quicksilver  usually  occurs  in  cinnabar  ores  as  sulphide 
of  mercury,  but  native  mercury  is  sometimes  found.  It 
was  produced  at  Huancavelica  in  huge  quantities,  from 
1566  till  the  year  when  the  mine  fell  in  (1786).  The  ore 
occurs  in  an  immense  lode,  about  200  ft.  wide,  and  is 
still  workable.  Other  districts  in  Ancachs  ( e.g .,  Chonta) 
and  in  Puno  also  yield  quicksilver.  The  output  now  has 
almost  ceased;  in  1911  it  was  560  kg.  (£123). 

The  output  of  fine  bismuth,  in  1911,  amounted  to  a 
value  of  £7,329,  and  that  of  tungsten  to  £4,326.  Antimony 
is  produced,  but  only  in  small  quantities. 

Iron  ores  exist  in  Piura,  the  Huailas  valley,  and  else- 
where, but  they  are  not  as  yet  worked.  Nitrate  has  been 
found  at  Caraveli. 

Cerro  de  Pasco. — Mining  generally,  in  Peru,  is  in  a 
stationary  condition,  but  there  has  been  a notable 


MINING  AND  MINERALS 


165 


increase  in  the  production  of  copper  and  vanadium. 
The  most  active  district  is  that  of  Cerro  de  Pasco,  where 
certain  mines,  previously  offered  to  an  English  syndicate, 
were  acquired  for  $14,000,000  by  an  American  company. 
This  took  place  during  the  presidency  of  Senor  Romana 
(1899-1903).  There  was  at  this  period  considerable 
friction  between  the  Government  and  the  Peruvian 
Corporation,  the  former  holding  that  the  development 
of  the  country  was  being  selfishly  retarded  by  the 
Corporation.  American  capital  was,  therefore,  welcomed 
as  a counterpoise  to  the  somewhat  exclusive  policy  of  the 
Corporation.  The  following  extract  from  the  British 
Consular  Report  for  1911-12  shows  the  existing  position 
of  the  mines  in  the  Cerro  district — 

Silver  and  Copper  Mines.— The  Cerro  de  Pasco  Mining 
Company,  who  are  now  the  principal  owners  here,  are  still 
working  on  a small  scale  at  the  central  shaft,  having  plenty 
of  ore  on  hand.  They  are  at  present  only  working  two  blast 
furnaces  and  two  reverberatories.  The  output  for  the  present 
year  amounts  to  about  40,000,000  lbs.  of  copper,  and  a small 
amount  of  silver  and  gold.  They  expect  to  enlarge  their 
output  during  the  coming  year. 

From  their  coal  mines  situated  at  Goyllarisquisga  they  are 
producing  about  650  tons  daily,  a decrease  on  their  output  of 
last  year  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  labour.  But  they  also 
buy  foreign  coke  and  petroleum,  the  output  from  their  own 
coal  mines  not  being  sufficient  to  keep  them  going.  They 
have  now  started  building  a branch  line  of  about  18  kiloms., 
to  some  of  their  mines  at  Quishuarcaucha,  which  they  expect 
to  finish  before  the  end  of  the  coming  year,  and  will  help  them 
very  much  in  obtaining  supplies  of  coal  for  making  coke. 

Huarancaca.  At  this  establishment  they  are  producing 
a little  over  200  tons  per  day.  The  bars  contain  about  25  per 
cent,  of  copper  and  600  ozs.  of  silver  to  the  ton,  with  traces 
of  gold. 

Vanadium  Mines,  the  property  of  the  American  Vanadium 

12— (2247) 


166 


PERU 


Company,  are  still  working,  though  there  was  a report  of  their 
stoppage.  They  are  producing  about  12,000  sacks  of  110  lbs. 
per  month,  averaging  from  35  to  40  per  cent,  of  this  metal. 

Vinchos.  This  company’s  output  is  now  about  150  tons  per 
month,  containing  about  600  to  700  ozs.  of  silver  per  ton  and 
25  to  30  per  cent,  lead,  and  expect  to  produce  more  in  the 
coming  year. 

Chuquitambo  Gold  Mines.  These  are  producing  about 
the  same  as  last  year — from  9 to  10  kilos,  per  month.  This 
company  started  a cyaniding  process  to  work  their  tailings, 
but  this  process  up  to  the  present  has  not  turned  out  a success. 

Atacocha.  Hardly  any  work  has  been  done  here  during  the 
present  year,  the  mines  having  almost  stopped  working. 

Huaillay.  These  mines  have  only  been  worked  about  six 
months  during  the  present  year  ; production  about  800  sacks 
of  110  lbs.  per  month,  containing  about  28  per  cent,  copper, 
and  50  ozs.  of  silver,  and  \ oz.  of  gold  per  ton  ; the  output  has 
been  exported.  These  mines  have  been  bought  by  a French 
company,  who  at  present  are  only  doing  exploration  work. 

Electric  Light  and  Power  Works.  The  Cerro  de  Pasco 
Mining  Company  and  the  Morococha  Company  have  taken 
possession  of  the  rivers  and  waters  between  Oroya  and 
Morococha,  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  a powerful  factory  to 
serve  both  the  companies  for  lighting  and  power.  They  have 
started  erecting  the  plant  and  expect  to  finish  in  a year  or 
a year  and  a half. 

Morococha.  This  company’s  mines  have  begun  work,  the 
metal  being  sent  to  the  smelter  up  here,  about  150  tons  per 
day,  and  they  will  soon  double  this  quantity.  The  ores 
contain  about  9 or  10  per  cent,  copper  and  silver. 

Claims. — The  size  of  a mining  claim  (pertenencia)  varies 
from  200  by  100  metres  2 hectares  = 5 acres)  for 
lodes,  to  200  by  200  metres  (4  hectares  or  10  acres)  for 
deposits.  One  owner  may  hold  any  number  of  claims. 
Each  claim  is  subject  to  a tax  of  30  soles  annually  (—  £3), 
and  lapses  to  the  Government  if  the  tax  is  unpaid. 

Labour. — Manual  labour  is  performed  by  the  sierra 
Indians,  and  wages  at  present  are  low ; work  is  often 


MINING  LAWS 


167 


done  by  the  piece.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
Indian  prefers  agricultural  work  to  labour  in  the  mine 
or  factory,  and  any  large  development  of  mining  might  be 
faced  by  the  difficulty  of  a scarcity  of  labour  suited  to 
work  at  the  high  altitudes  common  in  Peru. 

Output. — The  total  output  for  1910  was  estimated 
at  a value  of  £3,373,212  (of  which  gold  was  valued  at 
£96,612)  ; and  for  1911,  at  £3,699,615  (gold,  £101,152). 
Details  of  the  minerals  exported  are  given  in  the  Chapter 
on  Imports  and  Exports. 

Mining  Laws. — The  present  Mining  Code,  passed  in 
July,  1900,  has  been  in  force  since  January  1st,  1901. 
It  revokes  all  previous  legislation  on  the  subject,  save 
the  laws  on  the  School  of  Engineers,  on  Guano,  on 
Nitrate,  on  Mining  Taxes,  on  the  Salt  Monopoly,  and  on 
the  Fiscal  Duties.  It  is  an  exhaustive  document,  of 
220  articles,  arranged  in  eighteen  chapters  ; these  deal 
with  mining  property  generally  ; prospecting  ; the  unit 
of  measure,  extension,  and  form  of  concessions  ; taxes  ; 
mining  administration  and  jurisdiction  ; persons  capable 
of  acquiring  mining  property ; the  method  of  lodging 
mining  claims  ; the  relations  between  the  concessionary 
and  the  owner  of  the  soil ; the  relations  between  mine- 
owners  ; arrangements  for  general  audits  for  adjoining 
mines  ; land  and  water  for  reduction  works  ; rights  of 
way ; mining  companies  ; mortgages  and  other  con- 
tracts ; technical  functionaries  ; mining  lawsuits  ; expro- 
priation and  indemnification ; and  arrangements  to 
govern  the  transition  from  the  previous  to  the  present 
code.  The  following  points  are  extracted — 

The  ownership  of  mines  is  distinct  from  that  of  the 


168 


PERU 


land  or  superficial  property.  Concessions  are  for  mineral 
substances  capable  of  industrial  use,  but  do  not  include 
(a)  guano,  which  remains  State  property ; (6)  salt  ; 

(c)  nitrate,  borax,  and  alkaline  salts,  which  are  regulated 
by  special  laws  ; ( d ) rocks,  building  and  ornamental 
stones,  gypsum,  ochres,  clays,  peat,  steatite,  calcareous 
phosphates,  pyrites,  aluminium,  and  magnesia,  all  of 
which  belong  to  the  owner  of  the  soil. 

Prospecting  is  free  in  unfenced  lands,  but  requires  the 
consent  of  the  owner  in  fenced  property,  or  a licence 
from  the  local  mining  authority. 

An  annual  tax  of  30  soles  (£3)  must  be  paid  on  each 
claim,  half  on  30th  J une  and  half  on  31st  December  ; pro- 
visional concessions  for  prospecting  are  charged  1 sole  (2s.) 
per  hectare.  Failure  to  pay  the  tax  (which  is  surcharged  in 
succeeding  periods ) renders  the  holding  liable  to  confiscation. 

The  central  administrative  body  is  a Superior  Mining 
Council,  of  seven  members,  presided  over  by  the  Minister 
of  Development  ( Fomento ).  The  local  administration 
is  (a)  by  territorial  deputations  (of  two  members)  in 
important  mining  districts  ; or  ( b ) by  one  delegate  ; or, 
in  the  absence  of  either  of  the  above,  (c)  by  the  judge  or 
acting-judge  of  the  lower  court  of  the  province.  Sub- 
stitutes are  appointed,  who  are  to  act  in  the  absence  of 
either  deputy  or  delegate. 

Art.  18th.  The  claim  or  unit  of  measure  for  mining  con- 
cessions, except  in  beds  mentioned  in  the  following  art.,  is  a 
prismoidial  solid  of  rectangular  base  with  an  extension  of 
two  hectares,  having  one  side  of  two  hundred  meters  and  the 
other  of  one  hundred,  measured  horizontally  in  any  direction 
which  the  petitioner  may  point  out  and  of  indefinite  depth 
in  the  vertical  direction. 


MINING  LAWS 


169 


Art.  19th.  In  placers,  coal  and  petroleum  deposits,  and 
analogous  ones  of  gold,  platinum,  tin,  etc.,  claims  shall  have 
a square  base  with  sides  two  hundred  meters  long. 

Art.  20th.  The  mining  concession  applied  for  by  the 
denouncer,  may  embrace  any  number  of  claims  up  to  sixty. 

Art.  21st.  Claims  forming  together  a single  concession 
must  be  grouped  without  interruption  and  form  a rectangle 
whose  sides  must  be  in  a proportion  not  exceeding  ten  to  one. 

Art.  42nd.  The  following  are  the  attributions  of  the 
Mining  Deputations — 

1st.  To  decree  and  decide  on  everything  respecting 
concessions,  possession  and  measurements  of  mines  within 
the  territory  of  their  jurisdiction,  to  attend  to  the  formation 
and  registration  of  the  titles  of  the  mining  concession  : to 
superintend  mining  labours  as  far  as  it  should  be  necessary 
so  as  to  foresee,  prevent  and  remedy  accidents  and  to 
protect  the  life  and  security  of  the  workmen. 

2nd.  To  resolve  in  a lower  court  with  the  character  of 
privative  judges,  litigations  which  may  be  promoted  with 
respect  to  denouncements,  concessions,  measurements  and 
possessions,  introduction  in  strange  claims,  expropriations, 
attendances,  boundaries,  and  all  other  matters  that  have 
reference  to  mines. 

3rd.  To  decide  questions  relating  to  wages  between 
employers  and  workmen,  in  which  cases  a Justice  of  the 
Peace  may  intervene,  whenever  the  distance  to  the  seat 
of  the  Deputations  exceeds  twenty  kilometres  and  the 
amount  of  the  business  is  not  greater  than  two  hundred 
soles. 

Art.  43rd.  Attributions  of  the  Deputations  are  also  the 
superior  police  of  mines  and  all  mining  establishments  within 
their  respective  territories  so  as  to  be  able  to  attend  to  the 
security  of  persons. 

Art.  44th.  Deputations  have  the  duty  of  transmitting  to 
the  Government  all  data  respecting  mining  industry  in  the 
territory  of  their  jurisdiction,  when  so  requested. 

Art.  45th.  One  Deputy’s  attendance  suffices  for  the 
discharge  of  the  functions  entrusted  to  the  Deputation  ; but 
both  will  intervene  if  at  the  time  of  deciding  on  some  matter 
any  of  the  concerned  parties  so  require  it. 


170 


PERU 


Generally  speaking,  any  Peruvian  or  foreigner  capable 
of  owning  property  may  acquire  mining  claims,  except 
Government  officials  in  the  sphere  of  their  offices,  and 
the  wives  and  sons  (under  age)  of  such  officials. 

A fee  of  5 soles  (10s.)  is  required  on  applying  for  a 
claim. 

Registered  applications  are  advertised  by  placard  at 
the  office  door  and  in  the  newspapers  ; and,  if  unopposed, 
possession  may  be  claimed  after  three  months.  If 
opposed,  the  matter  is  decided  by  the  deputation,  experts 
being  called  in,  if  necessary.  Records  of  all  claims, 
possessions,  and  proceedings  are  to  be  filed.  Titles  are 
finally  authorised  by  the  Mining  Department  of  Lima, 
and  when  once  registered  in  the  tax-list  of  mines  can 
only  be  disputed  before  common  law. 

Appeal  against  a judgment  of  the  local  deputation 
must  be  made  within  five  days.  The  Court  of  Appeal  is 
constituted  of  two  members  of  the  Superior  Court  and 
one  acting  mining  judge. 

Opportunities  for  litigation  seem  numerous  ; and  it 
must  be  added  that  competent  observers  report  that 
the  administration  of  law  in  Peru  leaves  much  to  be 
desired.  Success  in  litigation  is  chiefly  a matter  of  the 
purse  ; and  the  higher  the  court,  the  longer  the  purse 
required. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


MANUFACTURES  AND  MINOR  INDUSTRIES 

Apart  from  her  great  agricultural  and  mining  industries, 
Peru  possesses  a large  number  of  manufactures,  some  of 
which  are  on  a very  considerable  scale.  Under  the  Inca 
regime,  despite  somewhat  primitive  methods,  a high  pro- 
ficiency was  attained  in  weaving,  pottery,  smelting,  and 
gold  and  silversmiths’  work.  These  traditional  arts  still 
survive  ; to  this  day,  the  Indians  of  the  sierra  manu- 
facture their  clothes,  hats,  and  blankets  or  ponchos,  as 
their  forefathers  did  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards. 
But  during  the  last  thirty  years,  there  has  been  a develop- 
ment of  manufactures  on  a larger  scale,  worked  by 
machinery  of  European  origin.  The  capital  and  owner- 
ship, though  sometimes  domestic,  is  for  the  most  part 
foreign,  and  the  management  also  of  these  establishments 
is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The  most  important 
of  the  industries  are  sugar-making,  textiles,  brewing  and 
distilling,  wine-making,  smelting,  and  engineering  ; but 
there  are  numerous  minor  industries.  Most  of  the  large 
factories  (except  in  the  case  of  sugar)  are  in  or  near  Lima, 
Callao,  Arequipa,  and  Cuzco. 

Sugar. — Upwards  of  fifty  plantations  or  haciendas  in 
the  sugar  district  of  the  west  coast  have  their  own  mills. 
The  annual  produce  is  about  150,000  tons,  of  which  the 
home  market  consumes  about  30,000  tons.  One  of  the 
leading  factories  is  that  of  the  British  Sugar  Co.  at  Santa 
Barbara,  in  the  Canete  valley,  which  produces  some 

171 


172 


PERU 


16.000  tons  per  annum.  Until  recently,  the  machinery 
in  these  mills  was  old-fashioned  and  inadequate,  extract- 
ing little  more  than  75  per  cent,  sucrose  in  place  of  90  per 
cent.  This  reproach  is  being  done  away  with  now.  An 
important  new  installation  of  the  latest  machinery,  with 
the  best  labour-saving  devices,  has  just  been  erected  in 
the  Roma  factory,  and  great  improvements  have  been 
introduced  at  Laredo,  Tuman,  Cartavio,  and  Casa  Grande. 
The  future  output  will,  therefore,  be  considerably  larger. 

Textiles. — (a)  Cotton.  Lima  has  five  factories  ; Are- 
quipa  and  lea,  one  each.  There  are  upwards  of  1,500 
looms,  producing  about  24,000,000  yds.,  and  occupying 
1,500  hands.  Calico,  drill,  towelling,  and  “ Cashmeres  ’* 
are  made,  supplying  a large  part  of  the  requirements  of 
the  home  market ; but  calico  printing  is  not  attempted. 

(b)  Woollen.  There  are  five  factories,  at  Cuzco,  Lima, 
and  Arequipa.  That  at  Santa  Catalina,  Lima,  produces 

200.000  yds.  of  cloth  annually,  used  mainly  for  army 
clothing.  The  most  modern  equipment  is  at  Marangani, 
near  Cuzco. 

Probably  the  output  could  be  trebled. 

Beer,  Wine,  and  Spirits. — The  brewing  of  beer  is 
rapidly  increasing.  The  largest  brewery  is  that  of 
Backus  & Johnston  (British  capital),  at  Lima;  there 
are  others  in  Callao,  Arequipa,  and  Cuzco. 

Alcohol  is  distilled  in  great  quantities  in  the  wine- 
growing district,  and  near  Lima  and  Callao ; some 

770.000  galls,  of  pisco  (a  spirit  made  from  white  grapes) 
are  produced  annually.  All  the  sugar  of  the  montaha 
is  at  present  used  in  the  manufacture  of  aguardiente 
(rum). 


MANUFACTURES  AND  INDUSTRIES  173 


Wines,  both  cheap  and  good,  are  made  to  the  extent 
of  about  2,200,000  galls,  per  annum. 

Ore  Smelting  is  largely  in  American  hands,  e.g.,  at 
Cerro  de  Pasco  and  Morococha.  It  admits  of  further 
development. 

Engineering. — Large  railway  engineering  shops  are  at 
work  in  Callao,  Arequipa,  and  Pacasmayo  ; Iquitos  also 
possesses  an  engineering  establishment.  These  are  valu- 
able not  only  for  their  equipment,  but  for  the  mechanical 
training  they  impart. 

Hydro-electric  Installations  of  considerable  size,  on  the 
Rimac,  16  and  25  miles  from  Lima,  provide  electric 
power  for  the  capital.  Other  large  towns  (e.g.,  Trujillo, 
Arequipa)  possess  similar  establishments  ; and  a large 
installation  is  being  erected  for  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  and 
Morococha  mining  companies.  The  great  water  power 
supplied  by  the  rivers  of  Peru  invites  further  operations 
in  this  field. 

Miscellaneous. — Cocaine  is  manufactured  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  satisfy  the  world’s  demand.  About  thirty 
factories  exist  in  the  coca-producing  districts,  the  largest 
being  at  Otusco  and  Lima. 

Coca  leaves,  chewed  with  alkali,  have  from  time 
immemorial  been  used  by  the  Indians  as  a stimulant 
to  exertion  in  the  absence  or  scarcity  of  food. 

Central  rice  mills,  with  fairly  modern  machinery,  exist 
in  the  rice  districts.  Climatic  conditions  and  inadequate 
irrigation  hamper  the  growth  of  this  commodity,  and 
the  supply  is  not  sufficient  for  the  demands  of  the  home 
market. 

Cotton-seed  oil  and  cotton-seed  cake  are  made  in  eight  or 


174 


PERU 


ten  factories  in  Lima,  Chancay,  and  Cerro  Azul.  Both 
the  cake  and  the  seed  are  exported  in  considerable 
quantities  (vide  Exports). 

The  manufacture  of  tobacco,  cigars,  and  cigarettes  has 
been  a Government  monopoly  since  1909.  There  are 
five  factories  in  Lima  and  others  in  Callao,  Piura, 
Trujillo,  and  Arequipa.  Peruvian  tobacco  is  somewhat 
coarse  and  strong-flavoured  ; the  annual  output  is  about 
2,200,000  lb. 

There  are  two  match  factories  in  Lima  (one  American) 
and  one  at  Iquitos. 

Several  factories  produce  soap,  tallow,  and  candles. 

Flour  and  other  wheat  products,  such  as  vermicelli  and 
macaroni,  are  made  in  several  places  ; the  best  and  most 
modem  equipment  is  at  the  Santa  Rosa  mills,  near  Lima. 
Macaroni  is  made  at  Iquitos. 

There  is  one  biscuit  factory  at  Lima. 

Lard  is  produced  in  large  quantities,  though  not 
sufficient  for  home  needs  ; the  industry  is  an  old  and 
flourishing  one. 

Tanning  is  also  a long-established  industry,  but  the 
processes  are  old-fashioned,  and  the  products  not  of  a 
high  class. 

Paper,  both  white  and  brown,  is  made  at  one  factory 
in  Lima ; but  the  quality  is  inferior,  and  there  seems  to 
be  an  opening  for  capital  here. 

Chocolate  is  made  in  several  factories  at  Lima  and 
Cuzco  ; the  quantity  is  not  sufficient,  however,  for  the 
home  market,  and  has  to  be  reinforced  by  importation 
from  Guayaquil. 

Chemical  industries  include  the  manufacture  of  drugs 


MANUFACTURES  AND  INDUSTRIES  175 


(especially  cocaine),  benzine  from  kerosene,  ammonia 
from  coal-gas,  gasoline,  and  alcohol ; the  last  two  are 
exported  in  some  quantity. 

Boots  are  usually  hand-made,  but  there  is  one  machine 
factory  at  Lima. 

Other  minor  industries  are  charcoal,  butter,  furniture, 
parchment,  dried  fruits  and  foods,  brooms. 

So-called  “ Panama  ” hats,  woven  from  the  toquilla 
grass,  are  made  in  large  quantities  in,  and  exported  from, 
Catacaos  and  other  places  in  the  Department  of  Piura. 
The  local  name  for  these  hats  is  “ jipi-japa  ” ; the  fibre 
is  kept  under  water  during  the  whole  of  the  plaiting  pro- 
cess, and  not  exposed  to  the  sun  till  the  article  is  finished. 

Future  Possibilities. — Peru  is  a vast  storehouse  of 
the  raw  materials  of  manufacture  ; it  possesses  abundant 
water  supply  suitable  for  the  development  of  electric 
power,  extensive  coalfields,  and  cheap  labour. 

For  a long  time  to  come,  Peru  must  continue  to  import 
machinery,  tools,  metal  manufactures,  vehicles,  shipping 
and  ships’  stores,  and  articles  of  luxury ; it  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  introduction  of  machinery  is  encou- 
raged by  its  being  admitted  free  of  Custom  duty.  Both 
cotton  and  woollen  textiles  admit  of  far  larger  production, 
the  raw  material  for  both  being  to  hand  in  abundance. 
The  silkworm  has  been  introduced  in  Apurimac,  and  silk 
manufacture  is  a possibility  of  the  future.  At  present, 
there  is  a large  importation  of  food-stuffs  and  beverages, 
but  excellent  beer  and  wine  are  produced  locally  ; butter, 
cheese,  chocolate,  and  preserve-making  could  be  greatly 
increased.  The  various  hide-dressing  industries  admit  of 
improvement  and  development  in  methods  and  output. 


176 


PERU 


Pottery  is  a craft  for  which  the  ancient  Peruvian 
showed  a native  genius  ; there  seems  no  reason  why  glass 
and  pottery  should  not  be  produced  in  Peru  to-day  in 
quantities  adequate  to  meet  the  demand  of  the  country. 
The  timber  resources  of  the  montana  are  enormous,  and 
will  some  day  be  exploited  by  means  of  saw-mills,  etc. 
At  present,  however,  it  is  impracticable  owing  to  diffi- 
culties of  transport.  Another  obstacle  is  the  difficulty 
of  securing  a large  enough  supply  of  one  kind  of  timber 
in  any  district  to  make  exploitation  profitable.  For  the 
present,  the  treeless  west  of  Peru  must  supply  its  timber 
requirement  by  importation  from  North  America. 

The  more  general  conditions  affecting  manufacturing 
enterprise  are,  on  the  whole,  more  favourable  to-day 
than  ever  before.  The  political  and  financial  instability 
that  checked  the  flow  of  capital  to  Peru  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  has  diminished.  Political  and  frontier 
disputes  with  Chile,  Bolivia,  and  Brazil  have  been  peace- 
ably settled  ; and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  similar 
difficulties  with  Ecuador  and  Colombia,  which  have  been 
a fruitful  source  of  friction  in  the  past,  will  eventually  be 
equitably  adjusted.  The  currency  and  finance  have  been 
established  on  a sound  basis,  and  the  general  administra- 
tion of  the  country  is  progressive  and  enlightened.  The 
immense  natural  difficulties  of  inter-communication  are 
gradually  being  overcome  by  railways,  roads,  and  tele- 
graphs. It  is  arguable  that  the  railways  of  Peru  were 
built  before  their  time  ; still  they  exist  now ; and, 
though  they  need  linking  up  and  carrying  further  east 
into  the  montana,  the  natural  barriers  to  trade  have,  in 
great  part,  been  broken  down. 


MANUFACTURES  AND  INDUSTRIES  177 


The  character  of  the  workman  is  another  point  worth 
considering.  The  average  Cholo  Indian  prefers  agri- 
cultural and  pastoral  employments  to  mining  or  factory 
work  ; he  is  also  illiterate  and  lacking  in  initiative. 
The  spread  of  education  can  only  be  slow  in  Peru  ; but 
the  native  has  hereditary  qualities  of  craftmanship  and 
patience  that  give  him  a natural  fitness  for  the  work  of 
an  artisan. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS 

Duties. — The  Import  Duties  average  33  per  cent,  on 
such  articles  as  are  liable  to  them.  Certain  foods  and 
beverages  are  dear,  e.g.,  tea,  coffee,  wines  and  liquors, 
cheese,  butter  and  margarine,  on  which  the  duties  are 
about  65  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  many  important 
articles  are  on  the  free  list,  e.g.,  agricultural  and  mining 
machinery  and  tools ; railway  material  and  stock ; 
steam  and  electrical  motor  machinery ; naval  articles  ; 
coal ; and  educational  works. 

Export  Duties  are  non-existent,  except  in  the  cases  of 
gold  and  rubber.  Three  per  cent,  is  charged  on  gold 
and  8 per  cent,  on  rubber  ; but,  as  explained  under 
Forest  Products,  4 per  cent,  only  is  levied  on  rubber  from 
the  Javary  district,  to  induce  its  exportation  via  Iquitos, 
instead  of  its  being  sent  direct  to  Manaos  ; 40  cents 
(Is.  8d.)  per  dozen  is  levied  on  “ Panama  ” hats. 

Total  Trade. — The  following  table  shows  the  total 
import  and  export  trade  of  Peru  from  1905  to  1911 
inclusive.  (The  figures  are  quoted  from  British  official 
sources.) — 


Imports. 

Exports. 

1 

£ 

1905  .. 

..  4,917,724 

4,780,414 

1906  .. 

. . 5,632,349 

6,600,325 

1907  .. 

. . 5,514,787 

5,747,732 

1908  .. 

. . 5,295,625 

5,478,941 

1909  .. 

. . 4,298,627 

6,492,670 

1910  .. 

. . 4,965,792 

7,074,076 

1911  .. 

. . 5,438,250 

7,416,028 

To  transpose  pounds  sterling  into  Peruvian  Soles,  multiply  by  10. 

178 


Customs  House,  Callao 


IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS 


179 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  imports  show  a diminution  in 
1907-9,  with  a rapid  recovery  in  1910  and  1911  ; the 
exports  suffered  a set-back  in  1907  and  1908,  but  since 
then  have  increased  largely,  the  figures  for  1911  being 
the  largest  in  the  history  of  the  country.  To  some 
extent,  this  increase  is  due  to  the  improved  methods 
adopted  in  recent  years  of  collecting  the  Customs  duties. 

Imports  Analysed. — (a)  Imports  by  articles  in  1910. 
The  following  table  shows  the  classes  of  imports  in  order 
of  value,  with  the  leading  countries  from  which  they  come. 
The  year  1910  is  taken  as  the  latest  for  which  absolutely 
complete  and  verified  returns  are  available — 

£ 

i.  Dry  Goods  and  Miscellaneous  Articles  ..  1,739,630 


£ 

United  Kingdom  . . . . 530,860 

United  States  . . . . 370,279 

France  . . . . . . 307,310 

Germany  . . . . . . 306,288 

Belgium  . . . . . . 188,382 

ii.  Food  and  Condiments  . . . . . . 734,464 

Australia  ..  ..  ..  164,727 

United  States  ..  ..  112,495 

Hong-Kong  . . . . . . 104,264 

Chile  102,283 

United  Kingdom  ..  ..  76,144 

Germany  . . . . . . 70,938 

iii.  Cotton  Textiles  . . . . . . . . 588,031 

United  Kingdom  . . . . 363,735 

Germany  ..  ..  ..  90,142 

Italy 46,065 

United  States  . . . . 30,659 

iv.  Metals  and  Manufactures  thereof  . . 449,199 

United  Kingdom  ..  ..  261,124 

United  States  ..  ..  102,441 

Germany  . . . . . . 42,242 

Belgium  . . . . . . 33,944 

v.  Wool  and  Hair  . . . . . . . . 213,387 

United  Kingdom  ..  ..  109,513 

Germany  . . . . . . 57,036 


180 


PERU 


£ 

£ 

vi. 

Tools,  Ships’  Stores,  Machines  and  Vehicles 

183,764 

United  States 

89,748 

United  Kingdom 

55,304 

Germany 

15,955 

France 

11,918 

vii. 

Wearing  Apparel 

167,375 

United  Kingdom 

53,212 

France 

25,577 

Germany 

24,411 

Italy  . . 

22,346 

viii. 

Stones,  earths,  glass,  and  chinaware  . . 

122,092 

United  Kingdom 

55,913 

Germany 

29,353 

ix. 

Beverages 

. . 

115,527 

France 

33,025 

Germany 

18,093 

United  Kingdom 

16,927 

Portugal 

14,271 

X. 

Medicines  and  Drugs 

... 

113,298 

United  Kingdom 

29,707 

Germany 

26,990 

United  States 

24,405 

France 

15,639 

Italy  . . 

10,213 

xi. 

Textile  Fibres  (Linen,  Hemp,  Jute)  . . 

93,740 

United  Kingdom 

51,257 

India 

18,282 

xii. 

Lumber 

89,316 

United  States 

66*316 

xiii. 

Paints,  Dyes,  Varnishes,  etc. 

79,762 

United  States 

43,810 

Germany 

13,892 

United  Kingdom 

12,823 

xiv. 

Paper,  Stationery,  and  Cardboard 

. . 

66,468 

Germany 

31,763 

United  States 

9,623 

United  Kingdom  . . 

7,332 

Belgium 

5,841 

XV. 

Silk 

. . 

61,744 

Germany 

24,894 

United  Kingdom  . . 

13,076 

France 

11,943 

IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS 


181 


xvi.  Arms,  Ammunition,  and  Explosives  ..  38,154 

United  Kingdom  ..  ..  13,814 

United  States  . . . . 8,082 

Hong-Kong  . . . . . . 5,550 

Chile 4,704 

Germany  . . . . . . 3,562 

xvii.  Hides,  Skins,  and  Leather  Goods  . . 34,781 

United  Kingdom  ..  ..  12,117 

Germany  . . . . . . 8,369 

United  States  . . . . 7,702 

xviii.  Furniture  ..  ..  ..  ..  31,924 

Germany  . . . . . . 11 ,009 

United  Kingdom  . . . . 9,043 

United  States  ...  . . 8,266 


(b)  Imports  by  countries — 


1 . United  Kingdom 

2.  United  States  . 

3.  Germany 

4.  France  . . 

5.  Belgium 

6.  Australia 

7.  Italy 

8.  Chile 

9.  Hong-Kong 

10.  Spain 

11.  India 

12.  China 

13.  Canada  .. 

14.  Other  Countries 


1910. 

1911. 

£ 

£ 

1,678,701 

1,720,133 

922,677 

1,248,952 

790,710 

945,907 

485,903 

289,543 

250,595 

333,982 

182,152 

229,306 

167,790 

199,450 

152,188 

76,996 

131,686 

154,321 

52,308 

79,597 

29,828 

38,980 

4,159 

283 

3,400 

— 

113,695 

120,800 

Total  ..  ..  4,965,792  5,438,250 


British  Imports. — The  principal  imports  into  Peru 
from  the  United  Kingdom  are  : (1)  Dry  goods  and  mis- 
cellaneous articles  ; (2)  cotton  textiles  ; (3)  metals  and 
manufactures  thereof ; (4)  wool  and  hair  ; (5)  food  and 
condiments  ; (6)  coal,  glass,  china  ; (7)  wearing  apparel ; 
(8)  textile  fibres  (linen,  jute,  hemp). 

13— (2247) 


182 


PERU 


The  imports  from  the  United  States,  the  second  largest 
importing  country,  are  very  miscellaneous,  and  fluctuate 
considerably  from  year  to  year.  The  most  important  are  : 
(1)  Machinery  and  vehicles  ; (2)  lumber  ; (3)  blacking  and 
boot  pastes ; (4)  hardware ; (5)  cotton  goods ; (6) 

pharmaceutical  products  ; (7)  lard  ; (8)  oils  and  lubri- 
cants ; (9)  explosives  and  firearms  ; (10)  paper  and 

paper  articles;  (11)  perfumery;  (12)  boots  and  shoes; 
(13)  ropes  and  cordage  ; (14)  breakfast  foods  ; and  (15) 


soap. 

Exports  Analysed. — The  list  of  Peruvian  exports  is 
eloquent  of  the  resources  of  the  country  and  of  the 
extent  to  which  they  have  been  developed.  The  year 
taken  is,  as  with  the  imports,  1910 — 


(a)  Minerals  . . 

£ 

..  1,922,460 

Sugar 

..  1,382,157 

Rubber 

..  1,278,673 

Cotton 

..  1,014,822 

Alpaca  Wool 

. . 265,757 

Guano 

..  181,582 

Sheep’s  Wool 

..  145,386 

Straw  Hats 

..  121,078 

Petroleum 

..  109,615 

Hides 

90,745 

Llama  Wool 

70,702 

Cocaine 

69,151 

Rice  . . 

46,234 

Goat-skins. . 

33,754 

Cotton-seed  Cake  27,157 

Shirtings  . . 

26,064 

Pepper 

25,164 

Coffee . . 

23,228 

Cotton  Seed 

21,660 

Cocoa 

20,337 

Alfalfa  Seed 

18,851 

Chuno 1 

7,435 

Gasoline 

7,408 

Raw  Sugar 

(Chancaca)  . . 

7,261 

Condurango  Bark 

6,788 

Horns  of  Cattle 

5,833 

Chalonas 2 . . 

4,829 

Parchment 

4,777 

Bran 

4,746 

Vegetables  and 

garden  produce 

4,391 

Rhatany  Root . . 

4,171 

Live  Animals  . . 

3,869 

Onions 

3,772 

Tallow 

3,232 

Cacao 

3,200 

Cotton-seed  Oil 

2,739 

Yarn 

2,215 

Butter 

2,003 

Olives  

1,976 

Wheat  Flour  . . 

1,841 

1 i.e.,  dried  potatoes,  cured  on  ice,  used  in  making  vegetable  soup, 

* i.e.,  mutton  cured  on  ice,  without  salt. 


IMPORTS  AND 

EXPORTS 

183 

£ 

£ 

Salt 

12,956 

Honey 

1,551 

Charcoal  . . 

10,682 

Wines 

1,306 

Fruits  (fresh  and 

Beeswax  . . 

1,288 

dried) 

9,548 

Indian  Corn 

1,224 

Ivory  Nuts 

9,325 

Horsehair  . . 

1,094 

Cattle 

8,548 

Barley 

1,044 

Alcohol 

7,493 

Miscellaneous  . . 

30,961 

(Cotton  textiles,  which  amounted  in  1909  to  £36,850, 

do  not 

appear  in  1910,  except  as  “shirtings.”) 


(b)  Mineral  Exports  of  1910  analysed — 


£ 

Silver  and  copper  bars  635,852 
Copper  and  silver  bars  600,841 


,,  ,,  matte  130,915 

,,  ,,  ore  . . 123,698 

Silver  sulphide  . . 92,083 

Vanadium  ..  ..  91,911 

Borate  of  lime  . , 73,170 

Silver  and  lead  ore  37,516 
Silver  bars  ..  ..  32,148 

Copper  ore  . . . . 29,750 

Silver  ore  . . . . 24,777 

Copper  matte  . . 10,348 


£ 

Copper  lead,  and  sil- 


ver matte  5,591 

„ old  ....  4,732 

Lead  ore  . . . . 3,976 

Silver  and  copper 

sulphide  . . . . 3,312 

Gold,  silver,  and 

copper  ore  . . . . 3,051 

All  others  ..  ..  18,789 


Total  ..  ..  1,922,460 


Of  this  total,  the  United  States  took  £1,406,663  (mainly 
silver,  copper,  and  vanadium)  ; the  United  Kingdom, 
£388,793  (various) ; Germany,  £102,195  (mainly  borate 
of  lime  and  silver  sulphide) ; Belgium,  £18,435  (silver 


and  lead,  etc.) ; 

and  France,  £2,702  (copper). 

(c)  Exports  by  countries  in  1910 — 

£ 

£ 

United  Kingdom 

..  2,517,308 

Belgium 

106,211 

United  States 

..  2,032,577 

Spain  

70,941 

Chile 

. . 894,981 

Ecuador  

14,461 

France 

..  771,720 

Colombia 

12,924 

Germany 

. . 358,208 

Brazil  

8,078 

Bolivia 

. . 199,600 

Italy  

1,128 

In  1911  the  place  of  France  was  taken  by  Germany, 
and  that  of  Brazil  by  Italy. 


CHAPTER  XV 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 

A 

ABANCAY,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Apurimac,  and  also  of  the 
prov.  of  Abancay  ; lat.  13°  46'  S.  ; 8,060  ft.  above  sea-level ; 
on  R.  Abancay,  a trib.  of  the  Apurimac.  Population,  c.  5,000. 
Communications  : (1)  by  road  with  Cuzco  (209  kil.) , and  thence 
by  railway  with  Mollendo  (645  kil.),  or  (2)  by  road  with  Chala  ; 
the  former  is  much  the  more  convenient.  Chief  industries  : 
sugar-refining,  alcohol,  silk  cloths  ; copper  is  mined  in  the 
district. 

ACARf,  on  R.  Acad,  in  dep.  of  Arequipa,  prov.  Camana, 
30  m.  from  mouth  of  river  ; lat.  15°  25'  S.  Custom  house  of 
3rd  class,  dep.  on  Pisco. 

ACOMAYO,  in  dep.  of  Cuzco,  50  m.  S.  of  city  of  Cuzco  ; 
lat.  13°  50'  S.  ; cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Acomayo. 

ANCOMARCA,  on  the  frontier  between  Peru  and  Bolivia, 
S.  of  L.  Titicaca  ; lat.  17°  15'  S.  Custom  house  of  3rd  class 
dep.  on  Ilo. 

ANC6N,  in  dep.  and  prov.  of  Lima ; small  watering-place, 
much  frequented  in  the  summer  ; connected  by  railway  with 
Lima  (38.2  kil.)  and  with  Huacho,  via  Huaral  (215  kil.)  ; 
lat.  11°  37'  S.  Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

ANDAHUAILAS,  cap.  of  Andahuailas  prov.,  in  dep.  of 
Apurimac;  lat.  13°  51'  S.  Industries:  agriculture  and 
mining  (gold,  silver,  copper,  coal,  marble). 

ANTA,  cap.  of  Anta  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Cuzco  ; lat.  ,13°  45'  S.  ; 
about  50  m.  W.  of  Cuzco.  Copper,  clays,  and  marble  are 
found,  and  cereals  grown. 

ANTABAMBA,  cap.  of  Antabamba  prov.,  of  dep.  of  Apuri- 
mac ; lat.,  14°  35'  S.  Produces  cereals,  gold  and  silver. 

184 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


185 


APLAO,  cap.  of  Castilla  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Arequipa  ; lat., 
16°  13'  S.  Products : sugar,  vines,  cereals,  coffee ; gold, 
silver,  sulphur ; wine  and  alcohol,  carpets,  woollen  textiles. 

AREQUIPA,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Arequipa,  and  also  of  the 
prov.  of  the  same  name ; lat.,  16°  24'  S. ; 7,550  ft.  above 
sea-level ; pop.  35,000.  Communications  : by  the  Southern 
Railway  with  Mollendo  (172  k.)  ; with  Juliaca  and  Puno 
(351  k.)  on  L.  Titicaca,  and  so  by  steamer  and  rail  with 
La  Paz  in  Bolivia ; and  with  Cuzco  (644  6 k.). 

Arequipa,  orig.  called  Villa  Hermosa,  is  the  second  in 
importance  of  the  cities  of  Peru.  It  stands  in  a fertile  oasis 
amid  arid  uplands,  surrounded  by  the  great  mountains  of 
Omati,  Ubinas,  Pichu  Pichu,  and  El  Misti  (18,500  ft.).  The  air 
is  dry  and  pure,  and  the  climate  delightful.  The  city  has  an 
oriental  aspect ; its  massive  houses,  mostly  of  one  storey, 
are  built  of  white  stone,  dazzling  in  the  brilliant  sunshine. 
The  larger  facades  are  adorned  with  elaborate  ornament. 
With  university  and  cathedral,  it  has  been  for  generations 
in  the  forefront  of  the  literary  and  religious  life  of  the  nation. 
It  possesses  two  meteorological  stations,  and  the  Harvard 
University  stellar  observatory.  The  volcanic  soil  of  the 
surrounding  district,  watered  by  the  R.  Chile,  produces  cereals, 
vines,  and  sugar-cane  ; and  gold,  silver,  copper,  mica,  borax, 
and  sulphur  are  found.  The  industries  of  the  city  include 
cotton  and  woollen  textiles,  leather,  tobacco,  and  cigarette 
making,  brewing,  printing,  gold  and  silversmiths’  work. 
Here,  too,  are  the  engineering  shops  of  the  Southern  Railway. 
There  is  an  electric  tram  service. 

The  bathing  resort  of  Tingo  is  not  far  from  the  city. 

Arequipa  is  the  centre  of  the  wool  trade. 

ASCOPE,  in  prov.  of  Trujillo,  and  dep.  of  La  Libertad  ; 
lat.  7°  40'  S.  Present  terminus  of  railway  communicating 
via  Chocope,  with  Trujillo  (68  k.)  and  the  port  of  Salaverry 
(82  k.).  The  district  produces  sugar. 

ASTILLERO,  in  dep.  of  Puno  ; lat.  13°  30'  S.  ; small 
river-port  on  the  Tambopata.  Communications:  (1)  by 

canoe  down  river  with  Puerto  Maldonado  ( q.v .)  ; and  (2)  by 
road  and  rail  with  Mollendo  (924  k.). 


186 


PERU 


ATICO,  small  port  in  dep.  of  Areqnipa  ; lat.  16°  15'  S. 
Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Mollendo. 

AYABACA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Ayabaca,  dep.  of  Piura  ; lat. 
4°  35'  S.  ; near  frontier  with  Ecuador.  The  district  is  mainly 
agricultural ; sugar  is  grown,  alcohol  distilled,  and  gold  mined. 

AYACUCHO  (formerly  Guamanga),  cap.  of  the  dep.  of 
Ayacucho,  and  also  of  the  prov.  of  the  same  name ; lat. 
13°  6'  S.  ; 9,216  ft.  above  sea-level ; pop.  14,000.  Com- 
munications by  road : (1)  with  lea  (300  k.),  and  thence  by 
railway  to  port  of  Pisco  (374  k.)  ; and  (2)  with  Huancayo 
(c.  260  k.),  and  thence  by  railway  with  Callao  (347  k.).  The 
products  of  the  district  include  silver,  and  filigree  ware  ; 
cereals,  wine,  pottery,  leather,  and  textiles. 

An  ancient  city,  seat  of  a bishopric  and  a superior  Court ; 
it  contains  a cathedral  and  about  twenty  other  churches. 
It  stands  in  a deep  and  fertile  valley,  the  scene  of  a great 
battle  in  1824. 

AYAVIRI,  cap.  of  Ayaviri  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Puno ; lat. 
14°  50'  S.  Communications  by  Southern  Railway  with. 
Cuzco  (247  k.)  ; Juliaca  (93  k.)  ; and  Mollendo  (569  k.), 
Products  include  beans,  Peruvian  bark,  mercury,  arsenic, 
silver,  copper. 

ASANGARO,  cap.  of  Asangaro  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Puno ; 
lat.  14°  53'  S.  Products  include  Peruvian  bark,  silver, 
antimony,  copper,  cinnabar,  salt,  marble,  mattings. 

B 

BARRANCA.  See  Supe. 

BARRANCO,  bathing  resort  near  Callao. 

BAYOVAR,  small  port  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Bay  of 
Sechura,  in  dep.  of  Piura ; lat.  5°  50'  S.  Connected  by  a 
private  mineral  railway  with  the  sulphur  mines  at  Reventazon 
(48  k.).  Chief  export,  sulphur.  Vessels  must  clear  at 
Paita  custom  house. 

BELLAVISTA,  bathing  resort  near  Callao,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  branch  railway  (3‘4  k.). 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


187 


BERMUDEZ,  PUERTO.  Limit  of  steam  navigation  on  the 
R.  Pichis  ; on  route  from  Iquitos  to  Oroya  and  Cerro  de  Pasco  ; 
lat.  10°  20'  S.  Wireless  telegraph  station. 

C 

CABALLO  COCHA,  river-port  on  the  Amazon,  below 
Iquitos,  1,478  kil.  from  Manaos  by  river.  There  is  also  a lake 
here  of  the  same  name. 

CABANA,  cap.  of  Pallasca  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Ancachs  ; 
Lat.  8°  23'  S.  Coal,  silver,  copper,  and  placer  gold  are  found, 
and  cereals  and  potatoes  are  grown. 

CAILLOMA,  cap.  of  Cailloma  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Arequipa ; 
lat.  15°  20'  S.  Agricultural  and  pastoral  district ; mining 
products  : gold,  silver,  copper,  coal,  lead,  petroleum. 

CAJABAMBA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Cajabamba  in  dep.  of 
Cajamarca ; lat.  7°  30'  S.  Products  mainly  agricultural : 
sugar,  coffee,  coca,  and  cereals.  Some  silver  is  mined. 

CAJAMARCA  (or  CAXAMARCA),  cap.  of  the  dep.  of 
Cajamarca,  and  also  of  the  prov.  of  the  same  name ; lat. 
7°  5'  S.  ; 9,440  ft.  above  sea-level ; pop.  10,000.  Communica- 
tions by  road  with  Chilete  (75  k.),  and  thence  by  railway 
(136  k.)  with  Pacasmayo.  Ancient  Inca  city  ; the  thermal 
" Bath  of  the  Incas  ” is  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  mean 
temperature  is  52°  Fahr.  The  district  produces  gold,  silver, 
copper,  coal ; also  cereals,  tobacco,  chocolate. 

Historically  the  town  is  notable  as  the  scene  of  the  capture 
of  Atahuallpa  by  Pizarro  in  Nov.,  1532.  It  stands  on  the 
northern  overland  route  to  Iquitos,  via  Chachapoyas  and 
Yurimaguas.  Telephone  to  Pacasmayo. 

CAJATAMBO,  cap.  of  Cajatambo,  prov.  in  dep.  of  Ancachs  ; 
lat.  10°  30'  S.  Produces  cereals,  textiles,  cattle-rearing. 
Coal,  silver,  copper,  antimony,  and  plumbago  occur. 

CALCA,  cap.  of  Calca  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Cuzco  ; lat.  13°  30'.  S. 
Industries:  Agriculture  (cereals,  sugar,  cocoa,  coca)  and 
mining  (silver  and  copper). 

CALLAO,  EL,  cap.  of  the  “ constitutional  ” prov.  or  dep. 


188 


PERU 


of  Callao,  which  covers  14  sq.  miles ; lat.  12°  8'  S.  ; pop., 
34,000.  Connected  by  two  steam  railways  and  two  electric 
lines  with  Lima  (7J  m.),  and  thence  by  the  Central  Railway 
with  Oroya,  Huancayo,  and  Cerro  de  Pasco. 

The  roadstead,  protected  by  the  lofty  island  of  San  Lorenzo, 
affords  safe  anchorage  in  a spacious  bay.  The  docks  allow 
the  largest  steamers  to  lie  alongside.  There  is  one  large  and 
one  small  floating  dock  ; also  a Clayton  disinfecting  apparatus. 
The  town  itself  is  purely  commercial.  There  is  an  English 
church.  Custom  house  of  1st  class.  Work  in  the  port  ceases 
at  6 p.m.  Guano  islands  in  neighbourhood.  Inland  telegraph 
and  telephone  service,  and  cable  communication  to  all  parts. 
Regular  ocean-steamer  services  to  Panama,  Europe,  United 
States,  and  Hong-Kong  ; and  coasting  vessels  of  all  sizes  call. 
The  industries  include  the  manufacture  of  flour,  tobacco  and 
cigarettes,  wine,  spirits,  and  beer.  The  engineering  shops  of 
the  Central  Railway  are  here.  The  leading  exports  are  wool, 
cotton,  and  cotton-seed,  copper,  silver,  coffee,  oil-cakes, 
sugar,  hides,  cocaine ; and  the  imports,  timber,  machinery, 
and  manufactured  metals,  cotton  and  other  textiles,  flour  and 
grain,  drugs,  oil,  paper,  coal.  The  total  trade  is  upwards  of 
£4,000,000  annually. 

There  is  easy  access  to  the  watering-places  of  Bella  Vista, 
Barranco,  Chorrillos,  Miraflores,  and  La  Punta. 

There  are  high-powered  wireless  telegraphic  installations 
at  Callao  and  on  the  island  of  San  Lorenzo. 

CAMANA,  seaport  in  dep.  of  Arequipa  ; lat.  16°  40'  S.  ; at 
mouth  of  R.  Mages  ; pop.  1,000.  Cap.  of  prov.  of  same  name. 
The  district  produces  olives,  rice,  sugar  ; mining  products  are 
coal,  copper,  sulphur,  kaolin,  salt,  petroleum,  gold,  mica,  borax. 
Chief  trade  : olives  and  olive  oil. 

CANETE,  cap.  of  Canete  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Lima ; lat. 
13°  T S.  Communications  by  railway  with  port  of  Cerro  Azul 
(10  k.).  The  district  produces  cereals,  cotton,  sugar,  fruit ; 
gold,  copper,  iron  ; sugar,  oil,  wine,  and  spirits.  Hats  and 
matting  are  manufactured. 

CANGALLO,  cap.  of  Cangallo  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Ayacucho ; 
lat.  13°  45'  S.  Produces  sugar,  alcohol,  hats,  woollen  textiles, 
and  sulphur. 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


189 


CANTA,  cap.  of  Canta  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Lima  ; lat.  1 1°  20'  S. 
Agriculture  and  grazing ; wool-bearing  animals  are  largely 
bred  ; the  mineral  wealth  is  great,  including  gold,  silver,  iron, 
coal,  sulphur,  cinnabar,  ochres,  and  kaolin  clay. 

CARAS,  cap.  of  Huailas  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Ancachs  ; lat. 
9°  4'  S.  Produces  coal,  quicksilver,  silver,  gold,  cinnabar, 
copper,  antimony  ; cereals,  sugar,  vines,  and  fruit  are  grown  ; 
textiles  and  tanning  are  the  chief  industries. 

CARMEN,  EL,  mining  district  in  Lima  dep.,  connected  by 
private  railway  (4  k.)  with  Casapalca,  on  the  Central  Railway 
(72  k.  from  Droya)  ; lat.  11°  40'  S. 

CARQUIN,  in  dep.  of  Lima,  just  N.  of  Huacho  ; lat.  1 1°  7'  S. 
Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

CASAPALCA,  in  dep.  of  Junin  ; lat.  11°  38'  S. ; on  Central 
Railway.  A short  private  line  runs  hence  to  the  El  Carmen 
mines.  Contains  the  principal  smelting  works  in  Peru. 

CASMA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Santa,  in  dep.  of  Ancachs  ; lat. 
9°  28'  S.  Minor  seaport.  Port  of  call  for  P.S.N.C.  and 
C.S.A.V.  Telegraph  to  Lima.  The  district  produces  rice, 
sugar-cane,  vines,  maize,  and  coal ; petroleum,  and  gold 
exist.  Exports  cotton,  corn,  wood,  charcoal. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

CASTROVIRREINA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  same  name  in  dep.  of 
Huancavelica ; lat.  13°  25'  S.  ; pop.  1,500.  Old  and  some- 
what decayed  Spanish  city,  owing  its  former  importance  to 
the  rich  mines  of  silver  and  quicksilver  in  the  district.  Textiles 
are  manufactured,  and  wool-bearing  animals  bred. 

CATACAOS,  small  town  in  dep.  of  Piura ; lat.  50°  12'  S.  ; 
on  R.  Piura,  10  kil.  S.  of  the  town  of  Piura,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a light  railway.  Centre  of  the  trade  in 
“ Panama  ” hats. 

CAUCATO,  in  dep.  of  lea ; custom  house  of  3rd  class, 
dep.  on  Pisco. 

CAUJUL,  in  prov.  of  Cajatambo,  dep.  of  Ancachs.  On 
line  of  projected  railway  from  Huacho  to  Oyon  ; lat.  10°  45'  S. 
For  industries  of  district,  see  Cajatambo. 


190 


PERU 


CAYALTI,  in  dep.  of  Lambayeque,  36  kil.  S.E.  of  port  of 
Eten  (q.v),  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a private  agricultural 
railway. 

CELENDlN,  cap.  of  Celendfn  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Cajamarca ; 
lat.  6°  50'  S.  Centre  of  a mining  district — gold,  silver,  copper, 
lead,  coal,  rock  salt. 

CERRO  AZUL,  seaport  in  prov.  of  Canete,  dep.  of  Lima ; 
lat.  13°  S.  ; port  of  call  for  steamers  of  the  P.S.N.C.  and 
C.S.A.V.  Communications  by  railway  with  Canete  (10  k.)  ; 
telegraph  to  Santa  Barbara  (on  R.  Canete)  and  Lima.  Exports 
sugar,  ores,  alcohol,  cotton-seed,  oil,  swine,  hides. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

Guano  islands  to  the  north. 

CERRO  DE  PASCO,  or  Pasco,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Junrn, 
and  also  of  the  prov.  of  Pasco  ; lat.  10°  40'  S.  ; 14,380  ft.  above 
sea-level ; pop.  about  9,000.  Communications  by  railway 
via  Oroya,  with  Lima  and  Callao  (454  k.)  ; and  also  junction 
with  Goyllarisquisga  (51  k.).  The  centre  of  a great  mining 
district,  long  famous  for  its  output  of  silver,  but  also  rich 
n copper,  coal,  gold,  salt,  cinnabar,  vanadium,  and  lead. 
The  Cerro  de  Pasco  Mining  and  Railway  Co.  (American) 
is  largely  concerned  with  the  production  of  copper  and 
coal. 

CHACHAPOYAS,  or  CHACAPOYAS,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of 
Amazonas,  and  also  of  the  prov.  of  Chachapoyas ; lat. 
6°  17'  S. ; 9,200  ft.  above  sea-level ; pop.  4,000.  Communi- 
cations by  road  with  Chilete  (360  k.),  and  thence  by  railway 
(135‘5  k.)  with  the  port  of  Pacasmayo  (495‘5  k.).  Centre  of 
an  inter-andine  district,  producing  gold,  sugar,  tobacco,  cotton. 
Is  seat  of  a bishopric.  Stands  on  the  northern  overland  route 
to  Iquitos  (Pacasmayo-Cajamarca-Chachapoyas-Yurimaguas- 
Iquitos). 

CHALA,  PUERTO,  seaport  in  the  dep.  of  Arequipa,  prov. 
Camana ; lat.  50°  51'  S.  ; at  mouth  of  R.  Yauca.  Port  of 
call  for  P.S.N.C.  and  C.S.A.V.  Chief  exports : copper  ore, 
wool,  cattle. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Mollendo. 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


191 


CHALHUANCA,  cap.  of  Aimaraes  prov.,  of  dep.  of  Apuri- 
mac  ; lat.  14°  24'  S.  ; on  river  of  same  name.  Communica- 
tions by  telegraph  with  Lima.  Products  include  Peruvian 
bark,  textiles,  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  saltpetre. 

CHAN CAY,  in  prov.  of  Chancay,  and  dep.  of  Lima  ; lat. 
11°  30'  S.  Small  seaport ; connected  by  railway  with  Palpa 
(25  k.),  and  by  telegraph  with  Lima.  Exports  sugar. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

CHICAMA,  in  dep.  of  La  Libertad,  on  R.  Chicama  ; railway 
junction  ; connected  (1)  with  Trujillo  and  Salaverry,  (2)  with 
Ascope,  (3)  with  Cartavio,  and  (4)  — by  privately  owned  line — 
with  La  Pampas  (45  k.).  The  district  produces  sugar. 

CHICLAYO,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Lambayeque,  and  of  the 
prov.  of  Chiclayo ; lat.  6°  48'  S.  ; 82  ft.  above  sea-level ; 
pop.  15,000.  Communications  by  railway  with  the  port  of 
Eten  (20  k.)  and  Cayalti  to  the  S. ; with  Lambayeque  and 
Ferrenafe  to  the  N. ; with  Patapo  to  the  E.  ; and  with 
Pimentel  (14  k.)  to  the  W.  Sugar,  rice,  and  cereals  are  grown 
in  the  district,  and  ponchos,  cotton  textiles,  straw  hats,  and 
alcohol  are  manufactured. 

CHILCA,  small  seaport  in  dep.  of  Lima ; lat.  12°  20'  S. 
Railway  communication  with  Lima.  Telegraph. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Callao.  It  is  believed 
that  Chilca  is  to  be  made  the  military  port  of  the  Republic. 

CHILETE,  in  dep.  of  Cajamarca  ; lat.  70°  20'  S.  Connected 
by  railway  with  port  of  Pacasmayo  (103  k.). 

CHIMBOTE,  seaport  in  Ferrol  Bay,  prov.  of  Santa,  dep. 
Ancachs ; lat.  9°  5'  S.  ; pop.  1,500.  Communications  by 
railway  with  Tablones  (57  k.).  In  telegraphic  communication 
with  Lima  and  Ferrenefe.  Exports  sugar,  copper,  ores,  coffee. 
Imports,  general. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

Considerable  guano  fields  to  north  and  south. 

CHINCHA,  ISLAS  DE  ; lat.  13°  50'  S.  ; off  the  coast  of 
lea ; guano  field. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Pisco. 


192 


PERU 


CHINCH  A ALTA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Chincha,  in  dep.  of  lea ; 
lat.  13°  22'  S.  ; pop.  3,000.  Communications  by  railway 
with  its  port  of  Tambo  de  Mora  (12  k.).  Industries  : wine, 
sugar-refining,  alcohol  distilling. 

CHIQUlAN,  in  prov.  of  Bolognesi,  dep.  of  Ancachs  ; lat. 
10°  9'  S.  For  industries,  see  Cajatambo. 

CHIRA.  Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Mollendo. 

CHORRILLOS,  in  dep.  and  prov.  of  Lima  ; lat.  12°  11'  S. ; 
a bathing  station  for  the  inhabitants  of  Lima,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  a railway  (14  k.),  an  electric  light  railway 
(13  k.),  and  electric  tramway  (17  k.).  The  town  is  built  on  a 
cliff  at  the  foot  of  the  Morro  Solar.  The  anchorage,  owing  to 
the  swell,  is  poor ; landing  is  effected  by  means  of  specially 
built  canoes. 

CHOTA,  cap.  of  Chota  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Cajamarca ; lat. 
6°  30'  S.  Centre  of  a mining  district : gold,  silver,  and  lead. 

CHUQUIBAMBA,  cap.  of  Condesuyos  prov.,  in  dep.  of 
Arequipa ; lat.  15°  50'  S.  Centre  of  agricultural  district ; 
gold  and  silver  are  found. 

COCOTEA,  on  coast  of  Arequipa,  near  Moquegua  ; lat. 
17°  14'  S.  Guano  exported. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Mollendo. 

COLAN,  in  dep.  of  Piura,  prov.  of  Paita ; lat.  5°  V S. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Paita. 

CONTAMANA,  cap.  of  Ucayali  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Loreto  ; 
lat.  7°  50'  S. ; on  R.  Ucayali.  Wireless  telegraph  station. 
Produces  sugar-cane,  yuca,  and  bananas ; manufactures 
sugar  and  alcohol. 

CONTUMAZA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Contumaza,  in  dep.  of 
Cajamarca  ; lat.  7°  20'  S.  Produces  rice  ; gold  and  silver ; 
woollen  textiles. 

COTAHUASI,  cap.  of  La  Union  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Arequipa  ; 
lat.  15°  S.  Products  include  Peruvian  bark  ; gold,  silver,  salt ; 
wine,  carpets,  and  woollen  textiles. 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


193 


CUZCO,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Cuzco,  and  also  of  the  prov.  of 
the  same  name  ; lat.  13°  31 ' S.  ; 11,445  ft.  above  sea-level ; 
pop.  about  15,000.  Communications  by  the  Southern  Railway 
(of  which  it  is  the  Northern  terminus  with  Mollendo)  (816  6 k.). 
One  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  Peru,  famous  for  its  Inca  and 
pre-Inca  remains.  Seat  of  a university  and  bishopric.  The 
district  contains  coal  and  copper,  but 'is  mainly  agricultural, 
producing  maize,  wheat,  barley,  coffee,  cocoa,  coca,  chocolate, 
and  sugar,  and  also  wool. 

The  Spanish  city  is  largely  built  on  the  foundations  of 
former  Inca  work.  There  are  three  large  plazas.  The  streets 
are  narrow  ; there  is  hardly  any  wheeled  traffic  ; llamas  and 
donkeys  abound.  The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  is 
Indian,  and  the  Quichua  language  prevails.  The  Indian 
markets  form  a characteristic  feature.  There  is  little  manu- 
facture. Above  the  city  stand  the  walls  of  the  famous 
prehistoric  fortress  of  Sacsahuaman. 

E 

ENSENADA,  LA,  in  dep.  of  Arequipa ; station  on  the 
Southern  Railway,  21  kil.  from  Mollendo.  Connected  by 
private  railway  with  the  hacienda  of  Pampa  Blanca  in  the 
Tambo  valley  (20  k.). 

ETEN,  in  prov.  of  Chiclayo,  and  dep.  of  Lambayeque  ; 
lat.  6°  50'  S.  ; pop.  3,000.  Connected  by  railway  with 
Cayalti  (36  k.),  Chiclayo,  Lambayeque,  and  Ferrenafe  (98  k.)  ; 
also  with  Patapo  (24  k.).  Exports  (sugar,  rice,  cotton, 
tobacco,  “ Panama  ” hats)  reach  an  annual  average  of 
£140,000.  Port  of  call  for  P.S.N.C.  and  C.S.A.  de  V. 

Custom  house  of  1st  class.  The  town  of  Eten  is  about 
1J  m.  from  the  port. 

F 

REFRENAFE,  in  dep.  of  Lambayeque ; lat.  6°  40'  S.  ; 
present  terminus  of  a railway,  via  Lambeayque,  to  port  of 
Eten  (43  k.). 

G 

GOYLLARISQUISGA,  mining  district  in  dep.  of  Junin, 
connected  by  branch  railway  with  Cerro  de  Pasco  (43  k.) ; 
lat.  10°  15'  S. 


194 


PERU 


A railway  is  projected  from  this  place  via  Huanuco  to 
Pucalpa  on  the  Ucayali,  thus  linking  Lima  and  Iquitos. 

GUADALUPE,  in  the  dep.  of  Lambayeque  ; lat.  7°  18'  S. ; 
pop.  2,000.  Connected  by  railway  with  the  port  of  Pacasmayo, 
(43  k.).  Produces  sugar,  rice,  maize,  fruit.  (There  is  another 
place  of  this  name  on  the  Pisco-Ica  Railway,  1 1 kil.  from  lea.) 

GUARAPE,  in  dep.  of  La  Libertad  ; lat.  8°  25'  S.  A little 
N.  of  the  guano  islands  of  Guanape.  Cotton  and  firewood 
are  exported. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Salaverry. 

H 

HEATH,  at  junction  of  the  rivers  Heath  and  Madre  de  Dios  ; 
lat.  12°  30'  S. 

River  custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Mollendo. 

HUACHO,  seaport  in  the  dep.  of  Lima ; cap.  of  the  prov. 
of  Chancay ; lat.  11°  8'  S.W.  Connected  by  railway,  via 
Ancon,  with  Lima  (253  k.).  Pigs  and  cattle  are  extensively 
bred,  and  lard,  sugar,  and  alcohol  manufactured  and  exported  ; 
deposits  of  salt,  coal,  and  silver  are  worked.  Regular  port 
of  call  for  steamers  of  the  P.S.N.C.  and  C.S.A.  de  V.  The  port 
has  a pier,  and  is  well  supplied  with  fresh  food,  water,  and 
wood.  Pop.  9,000.  Telegraph  to  Lima. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

HUALGAYOC,  cap.  of  Hualgayoc  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Caja- 
marca ; lat.  6°  40'  S.  Chiefly  mining  industries : gold, 
silver,  copper,  lead,  tin,  iron,  coal.  Cereals,  coffee,  and  sugar 
are  grown. 

HUAMACHUCO,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
dep.  of  La  Libertad ; lat.  7°  35'  S.  The  district  is  mainly 
agricultural ; the  products  include  cereals,  coffee,  coca ; 
gold  and  coal  are  mined. 

HUANCABAMBA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  same  name  in  dep.  of 
Piura  ; lat.  5°  25'  S.  ; pop.  600.  Cereals,  sugar,  and  cotton 
are  grown  ; fine  wool  is  produced.  Communication  by  road 
with  Piura  to  the  W.,  and  Puerto  Borja  on  the  upper  Maranon, 
to  the  E. 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


195 


HUANCANfi,  cap.  of  Huancane  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Puno  ; 
lat.  15°  12'  S. ; at  N.  end  of  L.  Titicaca.  Pasturage  for  cattle 
and  wool-bearing  animals  ; mining  products  of  district  include 
silver,  copper,  cinnabar,  tin,  gold,  coal,  naphtha,  petroleum, 
marble. 

HUANCAVELICA,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Huancavelica,  and 
also  of  the  prov.  of  the  same  name  ; lat.  12°  33'  S.  ; 12,530  ft. 
above  sea-level ; pop.  4,000.  The  district  is  rich  in  silver, 
cinnabar,  and  salt ; the  old  quicksilver  mines  are  now  aban- 
doned. All  kinds  of  wool-bearing  animals  abound.  Seat 
of  a bishopric,  and  formerly  one  of  the  wealthiest  cities  in 
Peru.  Communications  : (1)  by  road  with  Huancayo  (120  k.), 
and  thence  by  railway  (347  k.)  with  Callao  (467  k.)  ; (2)  by 
road  with  lea  (300  k.),  and  thence  by  railway  (74  k.)  with 
Pisco  (374  k.). 

HUANCAYO,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Huancayo,  in  dep.  of  Junfn  ; 
lat.  12°  8'  S. ; 10,830  ft.  above  sea-level ; on  R.  Mantaro ; 
pop.  6,000.  Communication  with  Callao  (347  k.)  via  Oroya, 
by  the  Central  Railway.  A railway  is  in  course  of  construction 
from  Huancayo  southwards  to  Ayacucho  (260  k.).  Produces 
silver,  copper,  and  the  other  products  common  in  dep.  of  Junin. 

HUANCHACO,  in  dep.  of  La  Libertad  ; lat.  8°  5'  S.  Pop. 
500.  Communication  by  railway  with  Tres  Palos  (14  k.)  and 
La  Roma  (54  k.).  Port  of  call  for  P.S.N.C.  and  C.S.A.V. 
Other  lines  also  call  to  take  cargoes  of  sugar.  Chief  export : 
sugar.  Telephone  to  Trujillo. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Salaverry. 

HUANTA,  cap.  of  Huanta  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Ayacucho ; 
lat.  12°  45'  S.  Produces  vines,  sugar,  and  cereals  ; gold  and 
silver.  Flannel  textiles  are  manufactured,  and  wine,  sugar, 
and  alcohol  made. 

HUANUCO,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Huanuco,  dep.  of  the  prov. 
of  same  name  ; lat.  9°  55'  S.  ; 6,200  ft.  above  sea-level ; on 
the  upper  Huallaga  ; pop.  6,000.  Communication  by  road 
with  Cerro  de  Pasco  (110  k.),  and  thence  by  rail  (454  k.), 
via  Oroya,  with  Callao  (564  k.).  Produces  gold,  silver,  sugar, 
coffee,  cocaine,  tobacco,  and  cereals ; also  cattle,  sheep,  and 
Pigs- 


196 


PERU 


HUARAS,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Ancachs,  and  also  of  the  prov. 
of  Huaras ; lat.  9°  30'  S. ; 9,930  ft.  above  sea-level ; on 

R.  Santa ; pop.  10,000.  Communications : (1)  direct  by 

road  with  port  of  Casma  (132  k.)  ; and  (2)  by  mixed  service 
route,  i.e.,  road  (110  k.)  and  railway  (104  k.),  with  port  of 
Chimbote.  An  ancient  city,  seat  of  a bishopric,  and  of  a 
Superior  Court.  The  mean  temperature  is  59°  Fahr.  The 
district  is  rich  in  minerals,  especially  silver,  lead,  copper,  and 
anthracite  coal ; cereals  and  potatoes  are  grown. 

HUARI,  cap.  of  Huari  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Ancachs  ; lat.  9°  20' 

S.  Industries  : agriculture  and  mining  (silver,  gold,  lead, 
and  coal  are  found). 

HUARMEY,  in  prov.  of  Huaras,  in  dep.  of  Ancachs ; lat. 
10°  6'  S.  Minor  seaport.  Steamers  of  the  C.S.A.V.  call 
fortnightly.  Telegraph  to  Lima.  Chief  trade,  firewood. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

I 

ICA,  cap.  of  dep.  of  lea,  and  also  of  prov.  of  same  name ; 
lat.  14°  4'  S.  ; 1,310  ft.  above  sea-level ; on  R.  Ica ; pop. 
5,000.  Communication  with  port  of  Pisco  by  railway  (74  k.). 
Industries,  cotton  textiles,  wine,  alcohol,  bee-keeping.  Bird 
pepper  ( aji ) is  grown,  and  copper,  gypsum,  salt,  kaolin,  and 
gold  are  found  in  the  district. 

ILO,  or  YLO,  with  Pacocha,  seaport  in  dep.  of  Moquegua ; 
lat.  17°  39'  S.  ; at  mouth  of  R.  Ilo  ; pop.  1,800.  Communica- 
tion by  railway  with  Moquegua  (100  k.).  Port  of  call  for 
P.S.N.C.  and  C.S.A.V.  Telegraph.  Clayton  disinfecting 
apparatus. 

Custom  house  of  1st  class.  The  most  northerly  port  in 
Peru  ; exports  wine,  spirits,  olives,  olive  oil. 

INAMBARI,  cap.  of  Tahuamanu  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Madre  de 
Dios  ; lat.  13°  40'  S.  on  Bolivian  frontier.  Products  include  : 
coffee,  coca,  rubber,  and  placer  gold. 

INAPARI,  or  TACNA.  River  custom  house  of  3rd  class, 
dep.  on  Mollendo. 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


197 


INDEPENDENCE,  BAHIA  DE  LA,  in  dep.  of  lea ; lat. 
14°  18'  S.  Guano  exported. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Pisco. 

IQUITOS,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Loreto  ; lat.  3°  44'  S.  ; on 
left  bank  of  the  Marahon  or  Upper  Amazon,  2,500  m.  from  its 
mouth  ; 350  ft.  above  sea-level ; pop.  normally  15,000,  rising 
to  20,000  in  the  height  of  the  rubber  season  ; mean  tem- 
perature, 85-90°  Fahr.  Communication  by  regular  service 
of  ocean-going  steamers  down  stream  with  Para,  and  so  to 
Europe  and  N.  America  ; also  by  two  routes  across  the  Andes 
westwards  : [a)  via  Yurimaguas,  Chachapoyas,  Cajamarca  to 
Pacasmayo,  ( b ) via  Rivers  Ucayali,  Pachitea,  Pichis,  and 
mule-road  to  Oroya,  and  thence  by  railway  to  Lima  and 
Callao.  The  fortnightly  mail  follows  route  ( b ),  about  2,100 
kils. , taking  17  days.  Railway  from  Oroya  to  Pucalpa  is 
being  constructed. 

Exports  mainly  rubber  and  ivory  nuts  ; imports  food-stuffs 
(including  rice),  dry  goods,  oil,  soap. 

Custom  house  of  1st  class. 

There  is  a high-powered  telegraphic  installation  here  on  the 
Telefunken  system,  communicating  with  the  river  ports  on 
the  Ucayali ; directly  with  Lima ; and  with  the  Putumayo. 
As  yet  no  commercial  system  is  established  with  Brazil,  via 
Manaos,  though  private  messages  have  been  sent. 

ISLAY,  minor  port  in  prov.  of  Islay,  dep.  of  Arequipa  ; 
lat.  16°  55'  S. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Mollendo. 

J 

JA£N  DE  BRACAMOROS,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Jaen,  in  dep. 
of  Cajamarca  ; lat.  5°  38'  S.  The  district  produces  gold  and 
silver  (placer  gold  in  R.  Chinchipa)  ; coca,  quinine,  coffee, 
and  cocoa. 

JAUJA,  SANTA  F£  DE,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Jauja,  in  dep.  of 
Junin ; lat.  11°  44'  S.  ; 11,050  ft.  above  sea-level;  on 
R.  Jauja ; pop.  3,000.  Communicates  by  branch  line  (3  k.) 
with  the  Oroya-Huancayo  branch  of  the  Central  Railway,  and 
so  with  Callao  (282  k.).  The  district  grows  cereals,  coffee, 

14— (2347) 


198 


PERU 


sugar,  and  produces  coal,  silver,  copper,  sugar,  alcohol,  textiles, 
and  hats. 

JESSUP.  See  Yessup. 

JULI,  cap.  of  Chucuito  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Puno ; lat. 
16°  10'  S.  ; on  W.  shore  of  L.  Titicaca.  Products  : Peruvian 
bark,  silver,  gold,  copper. 

JULIACA,  in  the  prov.  and  dep.  of  Puno ; lat.  15°  29'  S.  ; 
pop.  2,500.  Junction  on  the  Southern  Railway.  Com- 
municates with  Puno  (47  k.),  Cuzco  (340.6  k.),  and  with 
Mollendo  (467  k.). 

L 

LAMBAYEQUE,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Lambayeque,  in  dep.  of 
same  name  ; lat.  6°  4'  S.  ; pop.  8,000.  Communicates  by 
railway  with  the  ports  of  Pimentel  (24  k.),  and  Eten  (31  k.), 
and  with  Ferrenafe  to  the  E.  (15  k.).  Wool  and  cotton 
textiles,  soap  and  quinine  are  manufactured,  and  rice  is  grown 
and  exported  in  large  quantities  from  the  district ; also  guano 
from  Lobos  islands. 

The  city  has  a fine  cathedral,  a college,  and  a hospital. 

LAMPA,  cap.  of  Lampa  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Puno  ; lat.  15°  22' 
S.  ; 30  m.  W.  of  Juliaca.  Silver  is  mined,  and  pottery 
manufactured. 

LAMUD,  cap.  of  Luya  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Amazonas ; lat. 
6°  10'  S.  ; on  R.  Santiago.  Agricultural  district ; gold  is 
found  higher  up  the  river  at  Santo  Tomas,  and  lower  down 
at  Shipasbamba. 

LETICIA,  on  the  R.  Amazon,  near  the  Brazilian  frontier  ; 
lat.  4°  10'  S. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Iquitos. 

LIBERTAD.  River  custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on 
Mollendo. 

LIMA,  cap.  of  the  Republic  of  Peru,  and  of  the  dep.  and  the 
prov.  of  Lima  ; lat.  12°  3'  S.  ; on  left  bank  of  R.  Rimac, 
about  8 m.  E.  of  Callao  ; pop.  145,000.  Communicates  with 
its  port,  Callao  (13  k.),  by  two  steam  railways  and  two 
electric  lines  ; with  the  interior,  via  Oroya,  by  means  of  the 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


199 


Central  Railway  (Oroya,  209  k.  ; Huancayo,  333  k.  ; Cerro 
de  Pasco,  340  k.) ; and  northwards  with  Ancon  (38  k.),  and 
Huacho  (182  k.).  There  are  short  lines  to  the  neighbouring 
watering-places,  Chorrillos  (14  k.),  and  Magdalena  (7'6  k.)  ; 
see  also  Callao. 

Lima  (the  name  is  a corruption  of  Rimac),  founded  by 
Pizarro  in  1535,  was  for  nearly  three  centuries  the  seat  of 
Spanish  sovereignty,  and  the  greatest  and  wealthiest  city 
in  the  New  World.  It  is  still  a great  capital,  the  seat  of 
government  of  the  Republic,  and  the  leading  city  in  Peru. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a university  and  an  archbishopric,  with  numer- 
ous clubs,  libraries,  museums,  theatres,  etc.  The  climate  is 
cool  and  rainless,  though  heavy  mists  are  frequent.  The 
national  mint  is  here.  The  industries  include  cotton  spinning 
and  weaving  ; woollen  goods  and  cloth  mills  ; tobacco,  match, 
chocolate,  paper,  biscuit,  and  soap  factories ; brewing  and 
distilling  ; cotton-seed  oil  making.  Electric  power  is  supplied 
in  great  abundance  from  the  Rimac.  Telegraphic  communi- 
cation with  the  interior  is  mainly  by  government  service ; 
full  telephonic  facilities  with  neighbouring  towns,  and  a 
high-powered  wireless  telegraphic  installation  communicating 
direct  with  Iquitos. 

There  is  an  English  church. 

LIRCAY,  cap.  of  Angaraes  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Huanca- 
velica  ; lat.  13°  S.  Industries  : agriculture,  cattle-raising, 
gold-mining. 

LLATA,  cap.  of  Huamalfes  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Huanuco ; 
lat.  9°  22'  S.  Industries : agriculture,  mining,  and  textile 
manufactures  (sugar,  coca,  coal,  gold). 

LOBITOS,  7 m.  N.  of  Talara,  in  dep.  of  Piura  ; lat.  4°  30'  S. 
Exports  oil. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Paita. 

LOMAS,  PUERTO,  small  port  on  coast  of  the  dep.  of  lea  ; 
lat.  15°  33'  S.  ; serves  as  bathing-place  for  Acad  ; port  of 
call  for  P.S.N.C.  and  C.S.A.  de  V.  Sea-otters  plentiful  at 
certain  seasons.  Exports  cattle. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Mollendo. 

LORETO,  in  the  extreme  E.  of  the  dep.  of  Loreto  ; lat. 


200 


PERU 


4°  8'  S.  ; on  N.  bank  of  the  Maranon,  not  far  from  the  Brazilian 
frontier;  pop.  1,200.  An  important  river  port  and  commercial 
centre  ; produces  rubber. 

M 

MACUSANI,  cap.  of  Carabaya  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Puno ; 
lat.  14°  25'  S.  Products  include  coca,  sugar-cane ; coal, 
iron,  and  placer  gold  ; alcohol,  preserved  and  stringed  meats. 

MAGDALENA  DEL  MAR,  LA  (or  MAGDALENA  NUEVA). 

Bathing  resort,  S.  of  Lima,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
short  railway  (7’6  k.). 

MALA.  Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

MALABRIGO,  on  coast  of  La  Libertad  dep.  ; lat.  7°  42'  S. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Salaverry. 

MALDONADO,  PUERTO,  capital  of  the  dep.  of  Madre  de 
Dios,  and  of  the  prov.  of  Tambopata,  at  the  junction  of  the 
rivers  Tambopata  and  Madre  de  Dios  ; lat.  12°  36'  S.  Com- 
munications : (1)  by  steamer  down  the  Madre  deDios  with  the 
Amazon  ; and  (2)  by  canoe  with  Astillero,  thence  by  road  to 
Tirapata,  and  by  railway  to  Mollendo.  The  second  route 
occupies  about  22  days.  Produces  rubber,  coffee,  cocoa,  gold 
and  silver. 

River  custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Mollendo. 

MANCORA,  on  coast  of  dep.  of  Piura ; lat.  4°  16'  S. 
Exports  wood. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Paita. 

MANU,  cap.  of  Manu  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Madre  de  Dios. 
Produces  rubber  and  cocoa. 

MASISEA,  river  port  on  the  Ucayali,  below  junction  of  the 
Pachitea,  dep.  of  Loreto  ; lat.  8°  40'  S.  Wireless  telegraph 
station. 

MATUCANA,  cap.  of  Huarochiri  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Lima ; 
lat.  11°  52'  S.  ; 7,730  ft.  above  sea-level.  Communicates  by 
Central  Railway  with  Lima  and  Callao  (103  k.)  and  with 
Oroya  ( q.v .,  119  k.).  Industries  : agriculture,  pottery,  mining 
(coal,  silver,  copper,  gold,  bismuth,  antimony,  rock  crystal). 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


201 


MENOCUCHO,  in  dep.  of  La  Libertad ; connected  by 
railway  with  Trujillo  (26  k.).  Produces  sugar. 

MERCED  DE  CHANCHAMAYO,  LA,  in  dep.  of  Junin  ; 
lat.  11°  5'  S.  Communicates  by  road  with  Oroya  (111  k.), 
and  thence  by  railway  with  Callao  (222  k.).  On  the  Pichis 
route  to  Iquitos  ( q.v .). 

MOLLENDO,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Islay,  in  dep.  of  Arequipa  I 
lat.  17°  S.  ; pop.  7,000.  Communicates  by  the  Southern 
Railway  with  Arequipa  (172  k.),  Puno  (523  k.),  and  Cuzco 
(816  k.). 

The  port  has  an  annual  trade  of  about  £1,000,000.  It  is 
important  as  the  Pacific  terminus  of  the  Southern  Railway, 
and  as  a channel  of  traffic  to  and  from  Bolivia  ; but  it  has  been 
hard  hit  by  the  competition  of  the  Arica-La  Paz  Railway. 
The  anchorage  is  not  sheltered  and  transit  is  effected  by  means 
of  whale-boats  and  lighters.  A breakwater  is  being 
constructed. 

Mollendo  possesses  a hospital,  and  a custom  house  of  the 
1st  class.  It  is  a port  of  call  for  the  P.S.N.C.,  the  C.S.A.V., 
and  the  Kosmos  lines.  It  has  telegraphic  facilities  both  inland 
and  by  submarine  cable.  The  chief  exports  are : wool, 

copper,  silver,  borax,  together  with  tin  and  rubber  from 
Bolivia.  The  imports  are  general  merchandise. 

MOQUEGUA,  cap.  of  dep.  of  same  name ; lat.  17°  15'  S.  ; 
4,475  ft.  above  sea-level ; pop.  4,000.  Communicates  by 
railway  with  Ilo  (100  k.).  In  earthquake  region.  Vines, 
figs,  olives  are  grown,  and  wine  and  alcohol  made  ; mineral 
products  include  copper  and  silver,  marble,  gypsum,  sulphur, 
kaolin,  borax,  tin,  coal,  salt,  manganese. 

MOROCOCHA,  copper  mining  district  in  dep.  of  Lima, 
connected  by  branch  line  with  Ticlio  (14-6  k.)  on  the  Central 
Railway ; thence  with  Callao  and  Lima,  with  Oroya  and 
Huancayo,  and  with  Cerro  Pasco. 

MOYOBAMBA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Moyobamba,  in  dep.  of 
San  Martin;  lat.  6°  1'  S. ; 2,820  ft.  above  sea-level;  pop. 
4,000.  Communications  by  road  : (1)  with  the  river  port  of 
Yurimaguas  (q.v.)  on  the  Huallaga  (170  k.)  ; and  (2)  with 


202 


PERU 


Chachapoyas  (170  k.),  and  thence  with  the  seaport  of  Pacas- 
mayo.  ( See  under  Chachapoyas.)  Grows  cocoa  and  bananas, 
and  produces  gold,  coal,  iron,  sulphur,  matting,  and  straw 
hats. 


N 

NAUTA,  river  port  at  junction  of  the  Ucayali  and  the 
Maranon  ; lat.  4°  25'  S. 

NAZARETH,  river  port  on  the  Javari ; lat.  4°  S. 

NASCA,  in  prov.  and  dep.  of  lea. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Pisco. 

O 

OCOftA,  on  coast  of  dep.  of  Arequipa,  prov.  of  Camana  ; 
lat.  16°  20'  S. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Mollendo. 

OROYA,  LA,  in  prov.  of  Yauli,  and  dep.  of  Junin  ; lat. 
11°  30'  S.  ; 11,060  ft.  above  sea-level  on  river  Mantaro. 
Railway  centre.  Communicates  with  Callao  (222  k.), 
Huancayo  (125-6  k.),  and  Cerro  de  Pasco  (132  k.). 

OTUSCO,  cap.  of  Otusco  prov.,  in  dep.  of  La  Libertad ; 
lat.  7°  53'  S.  ; pop.  900.  Industries : agriculture  (sugar, 
coffee,  coca,  cereals)  ; mining  (gold,  silver,  tin,  coal).  Cocaine 
is  manufactured. 

OYON,  in  prov.  of  Cajatambo,  dep.  of  Ancachs  ; lat.  10°  40' 
S.  Terminus  of  projected  railway  from  port  of  Huacho. 

P 

PACASMAYO,  seaport  in  prov.  of  Pacasmayo,  and  dep. 
of  La  Libertad ; lat.  7°  24'  S.  ; pop.  3,000.  Communications 
by  railway  with  Guadalupe  (43  k.)  and  Chilete  (135' 5 k.) ; 
the  junction  is  at  Calisnique  (16  k.).  Port  of  call  for  P.S.N.C. 
and  C.S.A.V.  Telegraph  to  Lima.  Chief  exports  : sugar, 
rice,  hides,  coca,  silver,  copper.  There  are  coal  deposits  in 
the  interior.  The  town  has  a railway  engineering  shop. 
Telephone  to  Cajamarca. 

Custom  house  of  1st  class. 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


203 


PAITA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Paita,  in  the  dep.  of  Piura  ; 
lat.  5°  5'  S.  ; pop.  3,000.  Port  of  call  for  P.S.N.C.  and 
C.S.A.V.  Communications  by  railway  with  Sullana  and  Piura 
(97  k.),  and  by  cable  with  Panama  and  southern  ports  as 
far  as  Valparaiso.  Excellent  harbour,  with  growing  trade. 
Exports : cotton,  cotton  seed,  sugar,  hides,  straw  hats. 

Important  oil-fields  are  being  opened  up. 

Custom  house  of  1st  class  ; Clayton  disinfecting  apparatus. 

PALPA,  in  dep.  of  Lima  ; hacienda  connected  by  railway 
with  port  of  Chancay  (25  k.). 

(There  is  another  Palpa  in  dep.  and  prov.  of  lea.) 

PAMPA  BLANCA,  agricultural  district  in  dep.  of  Arequipa  ; 
connected  by  private  railway  with  La  Ensenada  (20  k.),  and 
with  Mollendo  (41  k.)  by  the  Southern  Railway. 

PAMPAS,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Tayacaja  in  dep.  of  Huan- 
cavelica  ; lat.  12°  18'  S.  ; 7,000  ft.  above  sea-level ; pop. 
3,000.  Industries : agriculture,  mining,  cattle-raising ; 

leather,  sugar,  cheese,  and  alcohol  are  made. 

(Other  towns  in  the  prov.  of  Huaras,  Yauyos,  and  Pallasca 
bear  this  name.) 

PARAMONGA,  in  dep.  of  Lima ; connected  by  a short 
private  agricultural  railway  with  Pativilca,  and  so  with  Supe 
(20  k.). 

PATAPO,  in  dep.  of  Lambayeque  ; lat.  6°  50'  S.  ; connected 
by  railway  with  Chiclayo  (24  k.),  and  thence  (43  k.)  with 
Eten  (67  k.).  Produces  rice. 

PATIVILCA,  small  town  in  dep.  of  Lima ; lat.  10°  40'  S.  ; 
connected  by  railway  with  (1)  Barranca  and  Supe  (12-2  k.)  ; 
and  (2)  with  Paramonga  (private  line)  on  R.  Pativilca. 

PAUCARTAMBO,  cap.  of  Paucartambo  prov.,  of  Cuzco 
dep. ; lat.  13°  25'  S.  ; on  river  of  same  name.  Industries  : 
agriculture,  cattle-raising,  textiles. 

PAUSA,  cap.  of  Parinacochas  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Ayacucho  ; 
lat.  15°  20'  S.  Industries  : agriculture,  mining  (gold,  silver, 
asphalt)  ; textile  industries.  Important  wool  market ; 


204 


PERU 


woolbearing  animals  are  bred  largely  in  the  district  on 
natural  pasturage. 

PIMENTEL,  in  prov.  of  Chiclayo,  dep.  of  Lambayeque ; 
lat.  6°  45'  S.  Communicates  by  railway  with  Chiclayo 
(14  k.),  and  so  with  Lambayeque  (24  k.),  and  Eten  ( q.v .). 
Chief  export  rice  ; minor  exports  : sugar,  alcohol,  hats,  cattle. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Eten. 

PISACOMA,  in  dep.  of  Puno ; lat.  16°  50'  S.  ; on  the 
frontier  between  Peru  and  Bolivia,  S.  of  L.  Titicaca. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Ilo. 

PISCO,  seaport,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Pisco,  in  the  dep.  of  lea  ’ 
lat.  13°  42'  S.  Communicates  with  lea  by  railway  (74  k.) 
Extensive  coal-fields  at  Paracas  ; guano  from  the  neighbouring 
islands.  Port  of  call  for  steamers  of  P.S.N.C.  and  C.S.A.V. 
Hospital.  Telegraph.  Pop.  4,000.  Exports : ores,  cotton, 
wool,  hides,  cotton  seed  and  oil  cakes,  native  whiskies  and 
wine.  Imports  : general  merchandise  and  provisions. 

Custom  house  of  1st  class. 

PIURA,  cap.  of  dep.  of  Piura,  and  of  the  prov.  of  the  same 
name  ; lat.  5°  11'  S. ; 165  ft.  above  sea-level ; mean  annual 
temperature,  77°  Fahr.  Connected  by  railway  with  the  port 
of  Paita  (97  k.)  and  with  Catacaos  (10  k.). 

Piura  is  a town  of  adobe  houses,  with  an  unfinished  cathe- 
dral ; it  stands  a little  to  the  S.  of  the  old  San  Miguel  de 
Piura ; pop.  about  5,000.  The  province  produces  cotton, 
rice,  and  Peruvian  bark  ; iron  ores  and  coal  exist  near  the 
city.  The  industries  include  cotton  textiles,  straw  hats, 
tobacco,  and  cigarettes. 

PIZARRO,  PUERTO,  or  LA  PALIZADA,  seaport  in  prov. 
of  Tumbes  ; lat.  3°  30'  S.  ; at  mouth  of  R.  Tumbes.  Puerto 
Pizarro  has  taken  the  place  of  old  Tumbes,  owing  to  alterations 
in  the  mouth  of  the  river  ; the  ancient  mouth  is  3 m.  to  the  E. 
Pop.  2,000.  Port  of  call  for  vessels  of  the  P.S.N.C.  and 
C.S.A.V. 

PLAYA  CHICA,  in  Salinas  Bay,  dep.  of  Lima  ; lat.  11°  14'  S. 
Salt  is  brought  from  the  salt  lakes  5 m.  to  the  S.,  and  shipped 
from  the  pier.  Railway  to  Salinas  (10  k.). 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


205 


POMABAMBA,  cap.  of  Pomabamba  prov.,  in  dep.  of 
Ancachs  ; lat.  8°  52'  S.  Produces  cereals,  textiles,  silver, 
gold  'both  placer  and  mining),  and  coal. 

PUCALPA,  river  port  on  the  upper  Ucayali ; lat.  8°  25'  S.  I 
towards  which  a railway  from  Goyllarisquisga  is  projected. 

PUNO,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Puno,  and  also  of  the  prov.  of 
Puno  ; lat.  15°  50'  S.  ; 12,645  ft.  above  sea-level ; pop.  about 
5,000  ; situated  on  the  N.W.  shore  of  L.  Titicaca.  Communi- 
cates (1)  by  railway,  via  Juliaca,  with  Mollendo  (523  k.)  ; 
(2)  by  tri-weekly  steamer  service,  with  Guaqui  in  Bolivia,  and 
thence  by  railway  with  La  Paz.  The  district  is  rich  in  silver, 
lead,  copper,  zinc,  cinnabar,  and  cobalt ; alpaca  and  sheep 
wool  is  abundant ; Peruvian  bark,  barley,  and  potatoes  are 
grown.  Seat  of  a bishopric  and  a Superior  Court.  Pop.  7,000. 
Smelting  is  carried  on  extensively  in  works  recently  erected. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Mollendo. 

PUNTA,  LA,  bathing  station  and  suburb  of  Callao,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  short  branch  railway  (2  6 k.). 

PUQUIO,  cap.  of  Lucanas  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Ayacucho  ; 
lat.  14°  50'  S.  Products  : cereals,  Peruvian  bark,  gold,  silver, 
copper,  wool-bearing  animals  are  bred  on  natural  pasturage. 

Q 

QUILCA,  at  mouth  of  R.  Quilca,  in  dep.  of  Arequipa  ; 
lat.  16°  43'  S.  Steamers  of  the  P.S.N.C.  and  C.S.A.V.  call 
every  three  weeks.  Telegraph  to  Lima. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Mollendo. 

R 

RARUBO,  in  dep.  of  Cuzco,  15  m.  S.  of  the  city  of  Cuzco. 

RECUAY,  in  prov.  of  Huaras,  dep.  of  Ancachs ; lat. 
9°  40'  S.  On  line  of  projected  railway  from  Tablones  along 
the  Huaylas  valley.  For  industries,  see  Huaras. 

REQUENA,  small  river  port  on  the  Ucayali,  dep.  of  Loreto- 
Wireless  telegraph  station. 

REVENTAZON,  in  dep.  of  Piura  ; centre  of  a sulphur- 
mining district  ; connected  by  private  mineral  railway  with 
the  port  of  Bayover  ( q.v .). 


206 


PERU 


S 

SALAVERRY,  seaport  in  prov.  of  Trujillo,  and  dep.  of 
La  Libertad  ; lat.  8°  14'  S.  ; pop.  1,100.  Communicates  by 
railway  with  Trujillo  (14‘5  k.),  and  thence  with  Chocope  and 
Ascope  (82  k.)  ; also  with  Menocucho  to  the  N.E.  Coal  is 
found  in  the  neighbourhood.  Port  of  call  for  P.S.N.C.  and 
C.S.A.V.  Exports  mainly  sugar,  rice,  hides.  Telegraph. 
Custom  house  of  1st  class. 

SALINAS  DE  HUACHO,  in  dep.  of  Lima ; lat.  11°  20'  S.  ; 
salt  district,  connected  by  short  private  railway  with  Play  a 
Chica  (10  k.). 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

SALINAS  DE  OTUNA.  Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep. 
on  Pisco. 

SAMA,  in  dep.  of  Moquegua,  on  R.  Sama ; lat.  17°  80'  S., 
on  the  (provincial)  frontier  between  Peru  and  Chile. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Ilo. 

SAMANCO,  in  prov.  of  Santa,  dep.  Ancachs  ; on  R.  Nepena  ; 
lat.  9°  15'  S.  Port  of  call  for  P.S.N.C.  and  C.S.A.V.  Exports 
rice,  cotton,  cereals,  firewood. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

SAN  BARTOLOME  DE  CHAO,  in  dep.  of  La  Libertad. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Salaverry. 

SAN  CARLOS,  cap.  of  Bongara  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Amazonas  ; 
lat.  5°  50'  S. ; centre  of  agricultural  district.  At  Shipasbamba, 
on  the  R.  Santiago,  a little  to  the  W.,  are  gold  placer  workings. 

SAN  JOSE  (DE  LAMBAYEQUE),  in  dep.  of  Lambayeque  ; 
lat.  6°  45'  S. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Eten. 

SAN  MIGUEL,  cap.  of  La  Mar  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Ayacucho ; 
lat.  12°  52'  S.  The  district  is  mainly  agricultural,  producing 
maize,  Peruvian  bark,  cereals,  coca,  cocoa,  coffee,  and  cotton. 
Silver,  nickel,  cobalt,  and  manganese  are  found. 

SAN  NICOLAS,  in  dep.  of  Lima ; connected  by  short 
private  agricultural  line  with  port  of  Supe  (q.v)  (6  k.). 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


207 


(There  is  a guano  island  of  San  Nicolas  off  the  coast  of 
dep.  of  lea ; and  another  San  Nicolas  in  dep.  of  Amazonas, 
prov.  of  Chachapoyas.) 

SAN  PEDRO  DE  LLOC,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Pacasmayo,  in 
dep.  of  La  Libertad ; lat.  7°  26'  S. ; pop.  15,000.  Com- 
municates by  railway  with  port  of  Pacasmayo  (8  k.),  and  also 
with  Guadalupe,  Yonan,  and  Chilete.  Cotton  textiles  are 
manufactured,  gold  and  copper  mined,  and  rice,  sugar,  coffee, 
and  cereals  are  grown. 

SANDIA,  cap.  of  Sandia  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Puno ; lat. 
14°  20'  S.  Products  include  tobacco,  coca,  Peruvian  bark  ; 
gold  (mining  and  placer)  ; wool-bearing  animals  bred  on 
natural  pasturage. 

SANTA,  minor  port  at  mouth  of  R.  Santa,  in  dep.  of 
Ancachs ; lat.  8°  59'  S.  Exports  salt,  minerals,  rice,  and 
hides. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

SANTA  ANA,  in  dep.  of  Cuzco  ; lat.  9°  30'  S.  Port  on 
R.  Vilcanota. 

SANTO  TOMAS,  (1)  in  dep.  of  Amazonas  ; lat.  6°  30'  S. ; 
on  R.  Santiago.  Gold-mining  region. 

(2)  Cap.  of  Chumbivilcas  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Cuzco  ; lat. 
14°  52'  S.  ; on  R.  Santo  Tomas,  flowing  N.  towards  the 
Apurimac.  Industries : textiles  and  mining  (gold,  iron, 

silver,  copper,  tin,  lead,  salt). 

SANTIAGO  DE  CHUCO,  cap.  of  prov.  of  same  name,  in  dep. 
of  La  Libertad  ; lat.  8°  2'  S.  ; pop.  1,200.  Gold,  silver,  and 
coal  are  produced  in  the  district ; carpets,  woollen  and  cotton 
textiles  are  manufactured. 

SAPOSOA,  cap.  of  Huallaga  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Loreto ; lat., 
6°  50'  S.  Products  include  tobacco,  sugar,  coffee,  coca, 
quca,  bananas  ; alcohol,  sugar,  and  textiles  are  manufactured. 

SAYAN,  in  dep.  of  Lima  on  boundary  with  Ancachs ; lat. 
11°  S.  Connected  by  railway  with  Huacho.  For  industries, 
see  Huacho  and  Cajatambo. 


208 


PERU 


SECHURA,  in  prov.  of  Piura  and  dep.  of  Piura  ; lat.  5°  34' 
S.  ; 4 m.  from  mouth  of  R.  Piura.  Exports  cotton  and 
salt ; sulphur,  borax,  and  mica  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood  ; 
pearls  are  found  in  the  bay. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Paita. 

SICUANI,  cap.  of  Canchis  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Cuzco  ; lat. 
14°  25'  S.  Communicates  by  Southern  Railway  with  Cuzco 
(143  k.)  and  Mollendo  (673  k.).  Industries : agriculture, 
cattle-raising,  pottery,  textiles,  mining  (cobalt,  iron,  silver, 
copper). 

SUPE,  in  dep.  of  Lima,  prov.  of  Chancay ; lat.  10°  45'  S. 
Minor  port,  connected  by  rail  with  Barranca  (12  k.),  Pativilca 
and  Paramonga  to  the  N.,  and  with  San  Nicolas  (6  k.)  to  the  S. 
Port  of  call  for  P.S.N.C.  and  C.S.A.V.  ; telegraph.  Exports 
sugar,  alcohol,  and  corn. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

T 

TABLONES,  in  dep.  of  Ancachs,  on  R.  Santa ; connected 
by  railway  with  port  of  Chimbote  (57  k.).  The  line  continues 
to  “ kilometro  104,”  and  is  intended  to  follow  the  Huailas 
Valley  S.  via  Huaras  and  Recuay,  and  ultimately  to  reach 
Cerro  de  Pasco. 

TACNA.  See  Inapari. 

TAHUAMANU.  River  custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on 
Mollendo. 

TALARA,  small  seaport  in  dep.  of  Piura ; lat.  4°  30'  S.  ; 
exports  oil  and  oil  products  from  the  petroleum  fields  at 
Negritos.  Telegraph,  but  no  regular  steamer  service. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Paita. 

TAMBO,  in  Arequipa,  dep.  ; connected  by  railway  with 
Mollendo  (30  k.). 

TAMBO  DE  MORA,  minor  port  in  dep.  of  lea  ; lat.  13°  35'  S. 
Exports  native  whiskies  and  wines. 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Pisco. 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


209 


TAMBOBAMBA,  cap.  of  Cotabambas  prov.  of  dep.  of 
Apurimac ; lat.  13°  45'  S.  Industries : agriculture  (incl. 
sugar),  and  mining  (gold  and  silver). 

TARAPOTO,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  San  Martin  in  the  dep.  of 
Loreto  ; lat.  6°  38'  S.  ; pop.  900.  Communicates  by  road  and 
cattle  tram  with  Yurimaguas  ( q.v .)  on  the  R.  Huallaga  (90  k.). 
Produces  tobacco,  coffee,  cotton,  sugar,  and  rubber  ; sugar 
and  alcohol  are  manufactured. 

TARMA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Tarma,  in  the  dep.  of  Junin  ; 
lat.  11°  24'  S.  ; 10,025  ft.  above  sea-level;  pop.  8,000. 

Communicates  by  road  with  Oroya  (33  k.),  and  thence  by 
railway  (222  k.)  with  Callao.  Centre  of  a very  healthy, 
rich  and  fertile  district,  producing  silver,  copper,  coal,  salt- 
petre ; also  cereals,  coffee,  sugar,  cocoa,  Peruvian  bark  ; cattle 
and  wool-bearing  animals  are  reared,  and  textiles  and  straw 
hats  are  made. 

TAYABAMBA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Patas  in  dep.  of  La  Libertad  ; 
lat.  8°  10'  S.  Centre  of  agricultural,  pastoral,  and  mining 
region.  Products  include  cereals,  coca,  sugar,  gold,  silver,  and 
coal. 

TICLIO,  in  dep.  of  Lima.  Station  on  the  Central  Railway 
(Callao-Oroya),  about  170  kil.  from  Callao.  A branch  line 
runs  hence  to  the  mines  of  Morococha  (14'6  k.). 

TRES  PALOS,  in  dep.  of  La  Libertad  ; connected  with 
port  of  Huanchaco  (q.v.),  14  k.,  and  with  the  sugar  plantations 
of  La  Roma,  54  k.,  by  a private  railway. 

TRUJILLO  or  TRUXILLO,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Trujillo,  in  dep. 
of  La  Libertad  ; lat.  8°  T S.  ; on  R.  Moche ; 202  ft.  above 
sea-level ; pop.  10,000.  Communicates  by  railway  with  the 
port  of  Salaverry  (14- 5 k.)  ; also  with  Chocope  and  Ascope 
(67  5 k.)  to  the  N.,  and  with  Menocucho  (26  k.)  to  the  N.E. 
Ancient  Chimu  city  ; seat  of  university,  Superior  Court,  and 
bishopric.  Industries : sugar-refining,  gold,  silver,  and  salt 
mining,  tobacco.  Electric  power  supply. 

Extensive  ruins  of  the  ancient  Chimu  population  exist  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  from  these  abundant  evidence  of  the 
ancient  arts  of  pottery  and  weaving  have  been  obtained. 


210 


PERU 


The  present  city  ranks  next  in  importance  to  Lima  and 
Callao  in  the  coast  region.  It  suffered  greatly  in  the  Chilean 
war  of  1881,  but  has  recovered  steadily.  Its  prosperity 
depends  mainly  on  the  sugar  plantations  of  the  vicinity. 

TUMBES,  cap.  of  the  littoral  prov.  of  Tumbes,  formerly  in 
dep.  of  Piura ; lat.  3°  30'  S.  ; on  R.  Tumbes ; pop.  2,000. 
Communicates  by  railway  with  the  port  of  La  Palizada  or 
Puerto  Pizarro  (11  k.).  The  new  town  stands  about  18  m. 
by  river  from  the  port.  Products  include  sugar,  tobacco, 
coffee,  cocoa ; petroleum,  iodine,  salt,  sulphur,  cobalt,  coal. 
Sugar,  alcohol,  kerosene,  and  aniseed  rum  are  made.  Exports 
tobacco,  hats,  charcoal,  cattle.  Telegraph  station.  (See 
Puerto  Pizarro.) 

Custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Paita. 

U 

UNI6N,  LA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Dos  de  Mayo  in  dep.  of 
Huanuco ; lat.  9°  42'  S.  Industries : agriculture  (cereals, 
sugar,  coffee)  ; cattle-raising  ; textiles  ; mining  (gold,  silver, 
iron,  coal). 

URCOS,  cap.  of  La  Convention  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Cuzco ; 
lat.  13°  55'  S.  Communicates  by  Southern  Railway  with 
Cuzco  (40  k.)  and  Mollendo  (776  k.).  Industries  : agriculture 
(cereals,  coca,  sugar,  coffee)  ; mining  (coal,  gold,  silver)  ; 
textile  manufactures. 

URUBAMBA,  cap.  of  Urubamba  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Cuzco  ; 
lat.  13°  26'  S.  ; about  60  m.  N.W.  of  Cuzco.  Industries  : 
agriculture  and  mining  (silver,  copper,  iron,  plumbago,  salt, 
marble,  gypsum). 

V 

VfeGUETA,  Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Callao. 

Y 

YANAOCO,  cap.  of  Canas  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Cuzco  ; lat. 
14°  18'  S.  A little  W.  of  the  S.  Pablo  Station  on  the  Southern 
Railway  (Cuzco- Juliaca  branch).  The  district  is  very  rich  in 
mineral  wealth,  and  also  produces  Peruvian  bark  and  textiles. 


GAZETTEER  OF  CHIEF  TOWNS 


211 


YAUYOS,  cap.  of  Yauyos  prov.,  in  dep.  of  Lima ; lat. 
12°  30'  S.  Industries : agriculture,  mining,  cattle-raising, 
and  textiles. 

YCA.  See  lea. 

YESSUP  or  JESSUP,  on  R.  Pichis  ; lat.  10°  20'  S.  ; com- 
municates (1)  by  canoe  with  Puerto  Bermudez,  the  limit  of 
steam  navigation,  and  thence  with  Iquitos  ; (2)  by  road  with 
Cerro  de  Pasco. 

YLO.  See  Ilo. 

YONAN,  in  dep.  of  Cajamerca,  connected  by  railway  with 
port  of  Pacasmayo  (65  k.).  The  line  continues  eastward  to 
La  Vina,  and  will  ultimately  pass  through  Magdalena  to 
Cajamarca. 

YUNG  AY,  in  prov.  of  Huailas,  dep.  of  Ancachs ; lat. 
9°  18'  S.  On  the  road  from  Huaras  to  Chimbote,  and  on  the 
line  of  the  projected  railway.  Nearest  railway  station  at 
present  Tablones.  For  industries,  see  under  Caras. 

YURIMAGUAS,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Alto  Amazonas  in  the 
dep.  of  Loreto  ; lat.  5°  44'  S.  ; on  the  R.  Huallaga ; pop. 
1,200.  Communicates  by  steamer  down  stream  with  Iquitos 
(q.v.)  ; also  by  road  westward  with  Moyobamba  ( q.v ) (170  k.), 
and  thence  via  Chachapoyas  and  Cajamarca  with  Pacas- 
mayo. An  important  trading  centre,  collecting  rubber  for 
transport  to  Iquitos,  and  distributing  imports  from  the  latter 
town. 

Z 

ZARUMILLA,  on  the  frontier  of  Peru  and  Ecuador. 
Frontier  custom  house  of  2nd  class,  dep.  on  Paita. 

ZORRITOS,  small  port  in  dep.  of  Piura  ; lat.  3°  41'  S. 
Petroleum  works.  Telegraph  station.  Exports  : petroleum, 
kerosene,  benzine,  gasolene. 

Custom  house  of  3rd  class,  dep.  on  Paita. 


APPENDIX  A 

POSTAL  AND  TELEGRAPH  GUIDE 

Peru  belongs  to  the  Universal  Postal  Union.  The  adminis- 
tration of  the  Post  Office  is  sound  and  progressive,  and  the 
service,  considering  the  immense  natural  difficulties  to  be 
encountered,  is  good.  There  were  in  1911  some  1,057  offices. 
Money  Order  and  Parcels  Post  conventions  have  recently 
been  arranged  with  Bolivia,  the  United  States,  England, 
France,  Belgium,  Germany,  and  Switzerland ; and  one  for 
Parcels  Post,  alone,  with  Chile.  Letters  and  parcels  usually 
pass  through  the  Lima  Post  Office,  but  those  for  the  Montana 
district  go  via  Iquitos.  The  tables  on  the  following  pages 
give  the  charges  for  Internal  and  Foreign  postage  and 
telegrams. 


15— (2247) 


213 


TABLE  I.  INTERNAL 


>-,  4> 

CQ  3 

£ 


cq  S| 

£cS 


5 8 

o 


<d  a> 

a a 


bfl 

1/5 


. fo 

' 1/5 


•oO 
o ® 
go 

. bO*"* 

• G .. 


° . co 

co  . O 


<D 

> 


- CO 

- O 

a 

Ctj 

1-4 

tbO" 

C/j 

««  ° y 
»««  ; 

il&l 

CD  «J 

5 % rG  « 

3 ^ o 0 _ 

’m:  - 

g 1 rt 


d 

o 

T3 

d 

• o 

• CL. 

.1 
- o 
o 
o 

O o 

CM 

T3 

• S 
‘3 


d 0h 


U o u 

o d O 
fe  W ^ 


= *s: 


Lto 


c 

- bO-S 

‘ <D  ^ 


d 

o ^ 
•£»  o 
ci(ii 
‘C  3 

a S 


CTJ 

: > 

4-> 

d 

o 

43 


aJ 

SO 


O O 

to  to 


£ aj  * 

f ^ _,  si  r . --1 

a rd  ^ q,  o 

0)  0 7!0  In 

E ^ c ft  " e — 

5 KS  co  cl.  6 i> 

3 « * £ s g y 

O > « s o S 

QW 


o o -g  b 
■OgS? 

3 ° O > 


4> 

o'“  S u 
•2  +;  a o 

!fl  C rj  . 

V V o 
•2  ° « rt 

| Ml 

T3  So 
cd  3 
oj  t3  ctS 
uJSa 
0 «i  o o 
•O  - 0-43 

oi2  & c 


11 


o 

. T) 


._/©  "o'  M-* 

»-  _ J b£  o 

O 

" s js 

a a 


° J§ 

. 4->  4-» 

d 0 13 
<d  n3  ^ 

<■>  g CO 

O 4) 

O-  O 
< 0)  £ 

.-g  a 


.^,  u u 
T3  Cu  o 


u***G 
o -= 

CO 


<D  ' 


a o p o 

°§  eUS 
5 5-  b 


3 0-  g . 

h 3 4 

-£  ° 0 
2 +;0  o) 
5 hIC  U 
CD  O ’ 
O -M 


i 


*o  *> 

o P 


& 

1/5 


0) 

TJ 

d 

d 

CO 

T3 

H 

ctJ 

o 


U - r'-/  CO  2 

<D  O w O be 

«4H  CD  a,  _ 


T3 

d 

CTJ 


O 

P-l 

In  ^_T 

0 3H 


CTJ 

CD 


J.  ^ E ° 

8 .S  £ £ rt 


T3 


£ o 
O u 
— u. 
H O 
C O 

£■0 
» B 

o£ 

W co 

«‘5b; 

o ( 

u 


CD  o - 

o % 

'S|-. 

U ■ 

o 

pH 


CO 

o 

a, 

, aJ 

s 


O 

a3  i-J 

L 

SH  CD 

b-s 


CD 

O ^ 


CD 

u „ 
rt  o 
O co 

CD  O 

a 

cd  a 


>0  -4-* 


•s  E& 


rj  O 

• S CM 


fcU0K 

S 0 

r°  0 
to  CM 


TABLE  II.  FOREIGN 


•(•zo  fi)  sonrejS 
oS  J3d  siaded 
pajuud  zaqio 

cts. 

rfrCTt^NfJMN 

Tf  CD  ^ 

CD'fl'CDCDCD'^'fl'CDCD 

■(  zo  fl) 
soarezS  o£  jad 

sj3dEd&»3fc; 

ct  s 

C^MC^Cvl  — CnIMM 

(N  O CM 

CDCMCOCOCOMCMCOCO 

TJ 
& 
{ J 

Double. 

cts. 

CD  X CO  CO ’t  ^ fl1 

CD  00  CD 

00CDC0C000CDCD0000 

£ 

Single 

cts. 

eococococ<ic^c^c^ 

CO  rf  CD 

TfCCTfTj-Tt-COCO'fl’fl' 

•(•zo  f) 

sothejS  Si  /CjaAa 
joj  sia^aq 

Ct3. 

00000000 

O CM  O 
CM  CM  CM 

CMOC1CMCMOONM 

CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM 

I 

A 

3 

I 


T3 
G 
. A 


>s 

A 

3 

{iO 


>> 

A 

3 

bo 

a 

H 

A 

O, 

fl~ 

fl 


p 

T3 

3 

-v  fl 


* 

o> 

:s 


& 2 
dO 
a fl  — 

02  A 

gpa  <2 

<5  S.'d 

bjO  p 

S-S  : 
2 P 
1 1 1 


c/2  *3 
02 

a y 

A 

‘33  c/2 
A 02 
bO'd 
A p 

SC 


3 ^ 

hr  a 
£ a 
1-1  a 
flS 

|:s 


1 


a : 

u 

m 


rrt  O 

iSa 

CO  nJ 
nj  3 
60  O 

<3  W 
5-0 

< s 

-•SS 

:3 

. s 

W-2 

I cS 


02  -rt 
-+J 

A fl 

02  A 

• *h 

•^c 

0) 

jd  to 
H 3 

• * O 

• XTC 

A > 

X 

• ►H  «D 

• _Sr fl 
O -M 

fl 

3 'd 

• 'S  5 

. fl  d 

3 

& 2' 

d 

g a 

:*1 

rfO 

T3 

. A a) 

• B-d 

fl  -M 

U 


fl 


2 
73 

02  iS 
■3  o d 
d d p 

? CL  5 
O 2 n 
m fl  O 

Sj  :£ 
. cn 
| U.c 

U<Wm 


'C  a 


O *" 

o <D 

C/2  m 

02  g 

^ C/2 

fl  hH  T3 
m c 

j3 

'O  G to 

02  fl  HH 
4J 

G 

P 


. .-S  . 

. .0*0  . 
><  fl 
fl 

£ *5) 

. 0)  p . 

■o*W  • 

!!■§* 

. q rt  g 

'Sill 

fl  3 £V 

a fl  a 

■ a a a « 

«s  % 

■t*  * - 


o -a 
>h  a 
• • <2 
■ ■>» 
u a 

0*“ 

.g'g 

c/2  y fl  ; 
02  fl 
fl  fl  A 

fl 

S>e  « : 

fl  fl  d 

.« 

: : 


'<  m 


icmy 


< PQ 


1 w 

a § 
« « 
fl  D 

< W 


2 
. C 
' « 
u 
O 


Note.  id.  equals  about  4 ceol 


216 


PERU 


III.  From  England  to  Peru 

There  are  various  routes : ( 1 ) via  Southampton  and 

Panama  ; (2)  via  United  States  (by  British  and  French  packet 
via  Panama  ; by  German  packet  via  Buenos  Aires  and  Andes). 

Letters. — 2|d.  for  the  first  oz.  ; l|d.  for  every  succeeding  oz. 
The  value  cannot  be  insured. 

Printed  and  commercial  papers  up  to  4 lb. ) , , 0 

Samples  up  to  12  oz.  ) * • Per  oz- 

Coin,  gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  jewellery,  chemical  and 
medicinal  products  are  prohibited.  Dutiable  articles  are 
liable  to  confiscation. 

Correspondence  for  Iquitos  and  district,  unless  special 
instructions  are  given  to  the  contrary,  is  forwarded,  three 
times  a month,  via  Brazil. 

Parcels. — Routes  : 

(1)  P.S.N.  Co.  (47  days  to  Callao)  ) Four  or  five 

(2)  R.M.  Co.,  via  Panama  (30  days  to  Callao)  j times  monthly. 

(3)  Iquitos  Steamship  Co.  (about  8 weeks  to  | Every  six 

Iquitos)  ) weeks. 

Not  exceeding  3 lbs.,  by  (1)  2s.  ; by  (2)  and  (3)  3s. 

„ „ 7 lbs.,  by  (1)  3s. ; by  (2)  4s.  6d. ; by  (3)  4s. 

„ „ 11  lbs.,  by  (1)  4s.  ; by  (2)  6s.  ; by  (3)  5s. 

The  size  must  not  exceed  3|  ft.  in  length,  breadth,  or  depth, 

or  a combined  length  and  girth  of  6 ft.  The  value  cannot  be 
insured.  The  same  articles  are  prohibited  as  given  above 
under  “ Letters.”  All  parcels  for  department  of  Loreto  go 
via  Iquitos  ; this  direct  service  was  established  in  1912,  such 
parcels  having  previously  to  go  through  Lima. 


Telegraphs 

Rapid  progress  is  being  made  in  the  development  of  the 
telegraph  service.  In  1911  there  were  308  offices  (276  belong- 
ing to  the  Government).  The  lines  amounted  to  a total  of 
about  6,475  miles.  The  line  from  Lima  to  Chalhuanca  was 
opened  in  1912,  and  others  are  in  progress.  In  1908  wireless 
communication  was  established  between  Lima  and  Iquitos,  by 
means  of  five  wireless  and  eleven  ordinary  aerial  telegraphic 
relays  ; in  June,  1912,  direct  wireless  communication  between 
the  two  places  was  inaugurated  and  an  excellent  service  is 


APPENDIX  A 


217 


now  maintained.  The  system  adopted  is  the  Telef unken 
musical  spark. 

Cable  communication  with  the  United  States  and  Europe 
is  carried  on  by  the  Central  and  South  American  Telegraph  Co., 
and  by  the  West  Coast  of  America  Co.  Cables  to  U.S.A.  go 
via  Colon  or  Vera  Cruz  and  Salina  Cruz  ; those  to  Europe  link 
on  to  other  systems  at  St.  Vincent. 

Internal  Rates.  For  a telegram  of  ten  words,  40  centavos  ; 
for  each  additional  word,  4 c. 

For  aerograms  between  Lima  and  Iquitos,  a Spanish 
message  of  ten  words  costs  24  c. ; one  in  a foreign  language  or 
code,  48  c. 

England  to  Peru.  2s.  9d.  per  word  (except  for  the  Montana 
towns  of  Iquitos,  Masisea,  Orellana,  and  Requena,  for  which 
the  charge  is  4s.  9d.  per  word).  Deferred  rate.  Is.  4|d.  per 
word  (not  accepted  for  Iquitos,  etc.). 

Week-end  cable  letters  may  be  sent  to  Peru,  Chile,  and 
Argentina  at  the  rate  of  25  words  for  20s.,  each  additional 
word  costing  lOd.  These  are  not  accepted,  however,  for 
Iquitos,  etc. 

Telephones 

The  telephone,  though  under  Government  inspection  and 
supervision,  is  not  a monopoly  service  in  Peru.  The  lines 
probably  amount  to  over  4,000  miles.  The  districts  of  Lima, 
Arequipa,  Cuzco,  Trujillo,  Piura,  Cajamarca,  Cerro  de  Pasco, 
Huanuco,  lea,  and  Pacasmayo  all  enjoy  good  telephonic 
facilities.  The  longest  line  is  Pacasmayo  to  Cajamarca  (192  k.). 


APPENDIX  B 

STEAMSHIP  SERVICES 


The  principal  steamer  services  affecting  Peru  are  as  follows — 

A.  From  Europe,  via  Colon. 

B.  From  Europe,  via  Magellan  Straits. 

C.  From  United  States. 

D.  Local  West  Coast  Services. 

E.  River  services  of  the  Amazon  basin,  via  Iquitos. 

F.  From  Hong-Kong. 

A.  From  Europe  via  Colon. — The  quickest  route  from 
Europe  to  the  coast  of  Peru  is  by  way  of  Colon  and  Panama. 
The  joint  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Co.  and  the  Pacific 
Steam  Navigation  Co.  have  a fortnightly  mail  service  from 
Southampton  and  Cherbourg  to  Colon  ; and  another  from 
New  York  to  Colon.  The  Leyland  line  has  a service  from 
Liverpool  to  Colon  three  times  a month  ; the  Harrison  line, 
a monthly  service  of  cargo  boats  between  the  same  ports. 
Elder  and  Fyffes  carry  a limited  number  of  passengers  in 
their  weekly  service  from  Liverpool  and  Bristol  to  Colon. 
The  United  Fruit  Co.  have  a weekly  cargo  service  from 
London,  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Bristol,  and  continental  ports, 
the  cargo  being  transhipped  at  New  York  or  New  Orleans  ; 
this  line  also  carries  passengers. 

Continental  lines  running  to  Colon  include  the  French 
Compagnie  Generate  Transatlantique  (passenger  and  mail) 
from  St.  Nazaire,  Bordeaux,  Marseilles,  and  Barcelona ; the 
Italian  Societd  La  Veloce  (passenger  and  cargo)  from  Genoa 
and  Barcelona ; and  the  Spanish  Compania  transatlantic 
Barcelona,  from  Barcelona. 

At  present  the  journey  between  Colon  and  Panama  is  by 
rail,  but  the  opening  of  the  canal  will  avoid  the  necessity  of 
a change  here. 

The  Leyland  line’s  fare  to  Colon  is  £20  ; that  of  the  R.M.S.P. 
to  Callao  is  from  £38  12s.  6d.  to  £48  12s.  6d.,  and  to  Mollendo 
£5  extra. 


218 


APPENDIX  B 


219 


B.  For  the  Magellan  Straits  route  the  leading  service  is 
that  of  the  joint  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Co.  and  Royal  Mail 
Steam  Packet  Co.  They  give  a weekly  mail  service  by  “ A ” 
steamers  from  Southampton  and  Cherbourg,  and  a fortnightly 
mail  service  by  “ O ” steamers  from  Liverpool  andLaRochelle- 
Pallice,  to  Brazil  and  the  River  Plate ; also  an  intermediate 
fortnightly  service  from  Liverpool.  The  route  from  Monte- 
video is  via  Port  Stanley  (Falkland  Islands),  Punta  Arenas, 
Coronel,  Talcahuano,  Valparaiso,  Coquimbo,  Antofagasta, 
Iquique,  and  Arica  to  Mollendo  and  Callao.  (Fares  £35  to 
£62.) 

The  German  Kosmos  Co.  (including  some  vessels  of  the 
Hamburg-Amerika  Co.)  provide  (1)  a fortnightly  mail  and 
passenger  steamer  from  Hamburg,  Antwerp,  and  London, 
to  Chile  and  Peru  ; (2)  a monthly  steamer  from  Hamburg, 
Antwerp,  and  London  to  the  West  coast  from  Chile  to  San 
Francisco  ; (3)  Monthly  cargo  from  Hamburg,  Rotterdam, 
Antwerp,  and  London  steamers  to  west  coast  from  Chile  to 
Ecuador  ; (4)  monthly  cargo  steamers  from  Hamburg  and 
Antwerp  to  Chile  and  Peru  ; (5)  monthly  cargo  steamers  from 
Genoa,  Barcelona,  and  Cadiz  to  Chile  and  Peru. 

The  German  Roland  Line  of  Bremen  has  a service  between 
Callao  and  Europe,  via  Chilean  ports. 

The  Lamport  and  Holt  and  Gulf  Lines  have  joint  regular 
sailings  from  Antwerp,  Havre,  Glasgow,  and  Welsh  ports  for 
Chile,  Peru,  and  (if  cargo  offers)  Guayaquil  in  Ecuador. 

C.  From  U.S.A. — The  Merchants’  Line  (W.  R.  Grace  & Co.) 
run  a service  of  cargo  boats  between  Callao  and  San  Francisco, 
and  Callao  and  New  York  ; two  other  lines  have  a similar 
cargo  service  between  New  York  and  Callao. 

D.  West  Coast. — The  local  west  coast  services  affecting 
Peru  are — 

(1)  A weekly  service  between  Panama  and  Valparaiso, 
calling  at  Paita,  Eten,  Pacasmayo,  Salaverry,  and  Callao. 

(2)  A weekly  service  between  Guayaquil  and  South  Chile, 
calling  at  all  Peruvian  and  Chilean  ports. 

(These  are  operated  by  the  joint  Pacific  Steam  Navigation 
Co.  and  the  (Chilean)  Compahia  Sud-Americana  de  Vapores.) 

(3)  A service  on  alternate  Mondays  and  Saturdays  between 


220 


PERU 


Panama  and  Callao,  via  Guayaquil,  operated  by  the  (Peruvian) 
Compahia  Peruana  de  Vapor es  y Dique  de  Callao. 

E.  Amazon. — To  reach  Iquitos  and  the  Montana  district 
of  Peru  the  quickest  and  easiest  route  is  up  the  Amazon.  The 
monthly  service  of  the  Amazon  Steam  Navigation  Co.,  a 
Brazilian  company,  was  discontinued  in  Dec.,  1911  ; but 
Iquitos  is  connected  with  Liverpool  and  New  York  by  an 
equivalent  service  of  ocean-going  steamers  belonging  to  the 
Iquitos  Steamship  Co.,  which  is  managed  by  the  Booth  Line. 
The  Booth  Line,  which  has  built  a pier  and  warehouses  at 
Iquitos,  runs  a fortnightly  service  from  Liverpool  to  Manaos, 
via  Plymouth,  Cherbourg,  Havre,  Vigo,  Leixoes  (Oporto), 
Lisbon,  Madeira,  and  Para  (minimum  fare  to  Manaos,  £34). 

Smaller  draught  steamers  take  the  traveller  fromlquitos  along 
the  tributaries  of  the  Amazon  into  the  heart  of  the  Montana. 

F.  From  Hong-Kong.- — A Japanese  line,  the  Toyo  Risen 
Kaisha,  has  a service  once  in  two  months  between  Hong-Kong 
and  Callao,  via  Hawaii,  Salina  Cruz,  Honolulu  ; it  proceeds 
also  to  Iquique  and  Valparaiso. 


g 

0 


O 

CO 

0 — v 

Ph  X 


k nj  - 

<L»  ■ — 


ai 

C 

O 

o 

as 

C 

^ CvJ 

; ^ 

a> 


2 o 

p u,  Q,S  5 
bo  o G 5=3 
^ ic  o 
t -f  - T3 

O 

1C  co  — C ^ 
5 ■>  A. 

11  .2  11  C <1 


c O 
o 


u 0 

2 *3  ■ 


2 X 

o 


o 

C C WT3 

> CO  d -M 

'•§  g ;§  i 

J=  g"°  . 


'C  O ^3 
<N  < O 


o 

aJ 

C 

co  & 
O ° 
> O 

g o 


, >,  0 

(— * j— i 

c * 

Q.-M 

£ s 

O o 
^ o 
o 

fcjO  - 


-P  T3 

£ C 

.g  ■ * cti 

CO 

. c ^ 

CO  0 Ct 

c h 3 
0 = 0 
O U^5 


O 0 0 .' 
co  ,c  b 

qHH  g, 


id  e 'd 

&1  "O  O 
■ o o 


CO  ■ 


to'S 

c 

W 


English 
& U.S.A. 
Value. 

20-97d. 
(practic. 
= 21d.) 
42  cents 

19-2d. 
38-9  cents 

16d. 

32-4  cents 

Usual  Unit 
of  Commerce. 

Peso  papier 
(paper  dollar) 

Boliviano 
( = 10  reales 
fuertos  or 
100  centavos) 

Milreis  paper 

English 
& I S. A. 
Par  Value. 

47  619d. 
(practic. 
= 48d. 
•965  $ 
(96-5 
cents.) 

48d. 

•973$ 

26-934d. 
(practic. 
= 27d.) 
•546$ 

l^nit. 

Peso  nacional 
or  peso,  or 
(gold  dollar) 
= 100  cen- 

tavos 

Peso  or  (gold 
dollar) 

Milreis  gold 

T3 

-3 

2 

T3 

T3 

c 

O 

O 

O 

O 

u 

cn 

< 

y. 

H 

y 

>-* 

<-] 

w 

N 

-1 

O 

K 

< 1 

CQ 

PQ 

x 5 

CO  i 
ac  --' 


0 ^ 
yX  ra 

H u 
0 

• 2 
X3  co 


co  O 


So 


aK.h  CJ  „ 
•“H  0 CO  ( 

.,+i  o cj 
2 tcai 

^ J 33  rrt  r 


0 <D  „ CO 

p > o o 
C+:  aj  tuO  P-i 


Tj 


co  co  <D  1 

W-  — 

J3  . +J  o 
^ X 
Ooc 
"O  s o >, 

Cl  _ ~ 

o £ 2 S 

o = S .S* 

ic  o ro  o 

. _ 3 a 

t co  ‘ r~j 

O <d  P b 
4j  0 CD 
TJ  P 3 

omui; 

6C  _,  3 > 

S3  -23  .» 

C "O  /-N 
3 “ U O 
Op  2^ 

-o  3 3 

•c  u;  a 

,,  Q,  bo  i] 
II  03  b -J  £ 
^ d„5  PS  c. 


. *v 


-d£ 


u-% 

O s 

° *§ 
co  O 

cy  u 


o 
3 O 


< 

__  < 
5 5 
So 
Q 


o« 

X,  o 


_2  o 2, 
SO” 

^ s >1 

-t-  o 
°P  U a 

-f  CD  ^ 


Ijl  || 

fe  o « i 


, 


°-5 


»c 


7 ,v 

0 X 
•M 

1 'I 

U 


~ 


"'•*?  o 
C co 

o c p 
3 - O £ « 

* « 2 O- 

i3  c§  ^ S 2 ! 

O ^ co  ^ * 

-s.pj  i 

a 2 « 2 Ci ; 


H § 


T3 

c^i  T 


T3  T3 
C^l  GO 

(X  -+ 


0 0 
o o 
0 0 


O co 

!c  o -£ 
ic  ? 


tcS  c — 
g 05  o ° 
r*  ^ d ~ 

0 ^ 

> a ^ - 
c •-«  . — 


T3 

*C  o 
dv® 


T3 
3 . 

3 o 
2 2 
,9  (75 
o 


< 

I z 

5 < 

X D 

go 


. O ^ 

O ’Z-v 
a o x 

— c3  -f 
X £ M 

r'  P^  II 


i q'  c £ — ,£ 

2s5|!|i" 

I i*  2P  ..  w 

I 2 ^ 


0 X 


CO  _ 

4 CC  - ;r'  9 • 1 6 

ci  -r  'r-  — x — 


o 

— ; -_;  v:> 


'£  x 

•c  0 -r  x 


" o 


APPENDIX  C 

PERUVIAN  CURRENCY 


In  1872  gold  was  demonetised  and  bank  notes  were  made 
legal  tender  ; but  they  depreciated  greatly  and  were  with- 
drawn in  1888.  In  1897  the  free  coinage  of  silver  was  sus- 
pended and  the  re-importation  of  early  issues  forbidden.  A 
gold  standard  was  established  by  the  law  of  29th  December, 
1897,  and  became  the  only  legal  standard  from  14th  December, 
1901.  The  unit  is  the  sol,  of  25  gr.  weight,  900  fine. 


The  coins  authorised  are — 


( The  libra  peruana  (of  10  soles). 
Gold. — -|  916  fine,  = 20s. 

( J libra  (of  5 soles)  = 10s. 

’The  sol  (of  100  centavos)  = 2s. 

£ sol  ,,  50  „ = Is. 

Silver. — J * ,,  (peseta)  20  ,,  = 4|d. 

| (real)  10  ,,  = 2fd. 

Vjiff  „ (medio)  5 „ = lid. 

Bronze. — 2 and  1 centavos  = (roughly)  £d. 
and  £d. 


j'  = S4  866t  (In  Commer 
\ cial  practice 

1 $4-87.) 

= $2-4334-  $2.43. 

= $ -486£§,  or  48  6 cents. 
=24  3 cents. 

= 9-7  „ 

= 4-8  „ 

= 2 4 „ 

| = 1 cent,  and  £ cent. 


There  is  no  paper  currency. 


Legal  tender — 

Bronze,  to  the  value  of  5 centavos 
Silver,  ,,  ,,  ,,  10  Soles  ( — £\) 


For  higher  sums  the  English  sovereign  and  half-sovereign 
are  legal  tender  at  the  rate  of  10  soles  to  the  £\,  being  the 
exact  equivalents  in  weight  and  fineness  to  the  Peruvian  libra 
and  half-libra. 

N.B. — A comparative  table  of  the  currencies  of  the  whole 
of  South  America  faces  this  page. 


221 


APPENDIX  D 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

The  French  metric  system  is  legal  in  all  the  countries  of 
South  America,  and  is  obligatory  in  the  Customs  Houses  and 
other  government  offices.  The  most  important  standards 
are  the  metre  ( = 39' 37  inches),  and  the  kilogramme 
( = 2.204  lbs.).  The  metric  system  was  established  by  law 
in  Peru  in  1860. 

In  commerce,  however,  especially  in  the  interior,  the  older 
systems  often  survive.  These  are  confusing,  as  the  same 
term  may  bear  different  values  in  different  countries  or 
districts  of  a country.  In  old  Spain  itself  the  standards  were 
not  quite  uniform,  e.g.,  the  yard  {vara)  varied  between  0'847 
and  0834  of  a metre.  In  the  South  American  colonies  this 
variation  tended  to  increase  ; thus  in  Bolivia  and  Chile  the 
vara  = 0836  m.,  in  Argentina  and  Paraguay  0’866,  and  in 
Brazil  PI  110  m. 

The  most  important  of  these  older  terms,  which  survive  in 
Peru,  are  given  below,  with  the  English  equivalents. 

Vara  (yard)  = 0847  metre  = 33  37  in.,  or  0 927  yd. 

Square  vara  = 0 0835  of  a sq.  yd. 

Libra  = TO  143  lbs  avoird. 

Arroba  = 25  libras  = 25  36  lbs.  avoird. 

Quintal  = 100  libras  = 101  44  lbs.  avoird. 

Gallon  of  wine  or  spirits  = 0 74  imp.  gallon 

Arroba  ,,  ,,  ,,  = 6 70  imp.  gallons 

The  following  agrarian  measures  deserve  mention — 

Tongo  = a square  with  sides  of  13  varas  (12'051  yds.)  = 
145'2265  sq.  yds. 

Fanegada  = 5' 142  acres  (on  the  coast). 

Topo  = 3,493  sq.  metres  = (approx.)  6,950  sq.  yds.  (usually) 

,,  = 4,608  „ ,,  = ,,  9,150  „ (in  Puno 

and  Arequipa) 

Cuadra  = 10,000  „ = „ 19,000  „ 


222 


APPENDIX  E 

COMMERCIAL  TREATIES  AND  CONVENTIONS 


Between  Peru  and  the  United  States  oj  America 
Friendship,  Commerce,  and  Navigation,  1851  ; Amended 
1857,  1870,  1887. 

Extradition  Treaty,  1870. 

Arbitration  Convention  signed  2nd  December,  1908 ; 
Ratified,  1st  March,  1909,  for  submitting  to  arbitration  all 
questions  which  it  shall  be  considered  possible  to  submit  to 
such  treatment. 

Pecuniary  Claims  Convention,  1st  February,  1911. 

Between  Peru  and  the  United  Kingdom 


Treaty  of  Commerce  and  Navigation,  1850  ; Provides  for 
Consuls. 

Convention — Postal  Union,  1878,  1885,  1891,  and  15th 
June,  1897. 

Convention — Weights  and  Measures,  20th  May,  1875. 

Law — Marriages  of  Non-Catholics,  1897  and  1903. 

Consolidated  Regulations  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea, 
1897  and  13th  October,  1910. 

Extradition  Treaty,  26th  January,  1904. 

In  addition  to  the  Commercial  Treaties  and  Conventions 
existing  with  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  of  America, 
Peru  has  signed  treaties  of  commerce  and  navigation  with 
the  following  countries — 


Portugal 
Russia  . . 
Italy 
Japan 
Bolivia  . . 


1853,  1862  ; additional  protocol,  1863 
. . 1875 

. . 1873 

. . 1896 

. . 1906 


Consular  conventions  are  as  follows — 

Portugal 
France 
Italy  . . 

Germany 

Holland 

Belgium 


1875 

1879 

1896 

1899 

1908 

1908 


223 


224 


PERU 


A General  Treaty  of  Arbitration  has  been  signed  with  Italy 
(1905). 

At  an  international  congress  held  at  Montevideo  in  1889,  a 
treaty  of  international  commercial  law  was  arranged  between 
Argentina,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Chile,  Paraguay,  Peru,  and 
Uruguay,  and  is  now  in  force  between  the  first  and  the  last 
three  of  the  countries  named. 


APPENDIX  F 

DIPLOMATIC  REPRESENTATIVES 


1.  Of  Peru  to  the  United  States  of  America 

Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary — F.  A. 
Pezet. 

First  Secretary  of  Legation — M.  de  Freyre  y Santander. 

Consuls — Baltimore,  Boston,  Chicago,  Honolulu,  Los 

Angeles,  New  Orleans,  Panama,  Philadelphia,  Portland  (Or.), 
Port  Townsend,  San  Francisco,  Tacoma. 

Vice-Consuls — Norfolk,  San  Diego,  Manila,  Porto  Rico. 

2.  Of  United  States  of  America  to  Peru 

Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary — H.  Clay 
Howard. 

Secretary — A.  R.  Magruder. 

Secretary  of  Legation — William  P.  Cresson. 

Consul-General  (Callao) — W.  H.  Robertson. 

Consul — Iquitos,  etc. 

Consular  Agents — Cerro  de  Pasco,  Mollendo,  Paita,  Salaverry. 

3.  Of  Peru  to  Great  Britain 

Envoy  and  Minister — Don  Carlos  G.  Candamo  (resident  in 
Paris). 

Charge  d’ Affaires  and  Consul-General — (104  Victoria  Street, 
London,  S.W.),  Edward  Lembcke. 

Secretaries — Ricardo  E.  Lembcke  and  Enrique  G.  Swayne. 
Attaches — Pablo  E.  Caballero  and  Adolfo  Perez  Palacio. 

There  are  Peruvian  Consuls  at  Liverpool,  Southampton, 
Glasgow,  Dundee,  Cardiff,  Dublin,  Belfast,  Queenstown. 

225 


226 


PERU 


4.  Of  Great  Britain  to  Peru 

Envoy,  Minister,  and  Consul-General — E.  A.  Rennie, 
M.V.O. 

Consul-General  (Callao) — L.  J.  Jerome  (Calle  del  Arsenal, 
19). 

There  is  a Consul  at  Iquitos  ; Vice-Consuls  at  Callao,  Lima, 
Arequipa,  Mollendo,  Paita,  Salaverry,  and  for  the  Perene  and 
Chanchamayo  districts  ; and  a Consular  Agent  at  Cerro  de 
Pasco. 


INDEX 


Abancay  (prov.),  60 

(town),  184 

Acari,  184 

Acllahuasis  (Convents),  43,  48, 

50 

Acomayo  (prov.),  64 

, (town),  184 

Adobes,  41 

Agriculture,  142-150,  157 

, National  School,  144 

, Experimental  stations, 

144 

Aimaraes  (prov.),  60 
Aji,  14 

Alcohol,  distilling,  172 

, exports,  183 

Alfalfa,  13,  14 

, seed,  182 

Almagro,  Diego  de,  22-27 

, the  younger,  27-8 

Alpaca,  17,  159,  182 
Alpacote,  41 

Alto  Amazonas  (prov.),  73 
Amazon,  River,  8,  9,  121. 
Amazonas  (dep.),  57-8 
Ancachs  (Ancash),  dep.,  58-9 
Ancomarca,  184 
Ancon,  130-1,  184 

, Treaty  of,  36 

Andahuailas  (prov.),  60 

(town),  49,  184 

Andenes,  51.  See  also  Cordilleras. 
Angaraes  (prov.),  65 
Angostura,  49 

Animals,  Live  (exports),  182 
Anta  (prov.),  64 

(town),  184 

Antabama  (prov.),  60 

(town),  184 

Antimony,  164 
Aplao,  185 

Apurimac  (dep.),  59-60 

River,  8,  9 

Aquiri  (Acre),  River,  8 


Arequipa  (dep.),  60-1 

(prov.),  61 

(town),  185 

, capture  by  Chile,  35 

Arica,  2,  36 

, Battle  of,  35 

, Railway,  119 

Arms,  Ammunition  and  Explo- 
sives, Imports  (1910),  181 
Army,  83 

Asangaro  (prov.),  77 

(town),  54,  186 

Ascope,  1 85 
Astillero,  1 85 
Atahuallpa,  24-26 
Atico,  1 86 

Australia,  Imports  from,  181 
Ayabaca  (prov.),  76 

(town),  186 

Ayacucho  (dep.),  61-2 

(prov.),  62 

(town),  186 

, Battle  of,  31 

Ayaviri  (prov.),  77 

(town),  186 

Ayllus,  42 

Aymaras,  the,  20-21 

Bajo  Amazonas  (prov.),  73 
Balta,  Jose,  33,  38 
Bananas,  150 

Banks  and  Banking,  98,  101-2 
Barley,  183 

Barranca,  41.  See  also  Supe. 

Barranco,  186 

Bayovar,  1 86 

Beans,  150 

Beeswax,  1 83 

Belgium,  Imports  from,  181 

, Exports  to,  183 

Bellavista,  186 
Beni,  River,  8 

Bermudez  (Bermudes),  Puerto, 
187,  114 


227 


228 


INDEX 


Bermudez,  R.  M.,  38 
Beverages,  imports  (1910),  180 
Billinghurst,  G.  E.,  37,  38 
Biscuits,  174 
Bismuth,  164 
Bolivar,  Simon,  31,  38 
Bolivia,  Frontier,  1 

, Exports  to,  183 

Bolognesi  (prov.),  59 
Bongora  (prov.),  58 
Boots  and  Shoes,  175 
Borax,  162-3 
Bran,  182 

Brazil,  Frontier,  1-2 

, Treaty  (1851),  9 

, Exports  to,  183 

Brewing,  172 
Bridges,  Inca,  24 
Brooms,  175 

Budgets  (1912  and  1914),  93 
Butter,  175,  182 
Butterflies,  19 

Caballo  Cocha,  187 
Cables,  Submarine,  217 
Cabana,  1 87 
Caceres,  A.  A.,  35,  38 
Cacha,  49 
Cachiche,  Lake,  67 
Cailloma  (prov.),  61 

(town),  187 

Cajabamba  (prov.),  63 

(town),  187 

Cajamarca  (dep.),  62-3 

(prov.),  63 

(town),  25-6,  187 

Cajamarquilla,  42-3 
Cajatambo  (prov.),  59 

(town),  187 

Calaveras,  41 
Calca  (prov.),  64 

(town),  187 

Calderon,  F.  G.,  38 
Callao  (prov.),  63 

(town),  33,  35,  123-127, 

187-8 

, Shipping  returns  (1912), 

125-6 

Camana  (prov.),  61 

(town),  188 

Camarones,  16 


Canada,  Imports  from,  181 
Canas  (prov.),  64 
Canchis  (prov.),  64 
Candamo,  M.,  38 
Candles,  174 
Canete  (prov.),  71 

(town),  188,  41 

Cangallo  (prov.),  62 

(town),  188 

Canseco,  P.  D.,  38 
Canta  (prov.),  71 

(town),  189 

Canterac,  General,  31 
Carabaya  (prov.),  77 
Caras  189 
Carbajal,  28 
Carmen,  El,  189 
Carquin,  189 
Casapalca,  189 
Casma,  41,  131,  189 
Castilla  (prov.),  61 

, Ramon,  32-3,  38 

Castor-oil  plant,  13,  150 
Castro,  Vaca  de,  28 
Castrovirreina  (prov.),  65 

(town),  189 

Catacaos,  189 
Cattle,  158-9,  183 
Caucato,  189 
Caujul,  189 
Cayalti,  190 
Celendin  (prov.),  63 

(town),  190 

"Central”  route,  111-114 
Cereals,  13,  14,  147 
Cerro  Azul,  127,  190 

de  Pasco,  190 

, Mining  report  (1911-12), 

164-6 

Chachapoyas  (prov.),  58 

(town),  190 

Chala,  Puerto,  128,  190 
Chalhuanca,  191 
Chalonas,  182 
Chan  Chan,  20-21,  42 
Chancaca  (raw  sugar),  182 
Chancay  (prov.),  71 

(town),  131,  191 

Chanchamayo,  113,  156 
Charcoal,  175,  183 
Charitable  institutions,  106 


INDEX 


229 


i 


Chemical  industries,  174-5 
Chicama,  191 
Chiclayo,  191 
Chilca,  191 

Chile  Exports  to,  183 

, Imports  from,  181 

, Treaties  and  Frontier,  1-2, 

36 

, Wars  with,  32,  33-36 

Chilcte,  191 
Chillon,  41 
Chimbote,  132,  191 
China,  Imports  from,  181 
Chincha  (prov.),  67 

(islands),  191 

— Alta,  192 
Chinchaycocha,  Lake,  68 
Chinchero,  51 
Chinchilla,  18 
Chiquian,  192 

, 192 

Canal,  88 

Chocolate.  174,  175 

Cholo  Indians,  157,  159,  171,  177 

Chorrillos,  192 

, Battle  of,  35 

Chota  (prov.),  63 
, 192 

Chucuito  (prov.),  77 
Chullpas,  48-9 
Chumbivilcas  (prov.),  64 
Chufio,  182 
Chuquibamba,  192 
Cinchona,  150 
Coal,  164,  165 
Coast  Zone,  the,  4-5 

, Flora,  13-14 

, Early  civilisation,  41-44 

Coati  island,  46,  48 
Coca,  149-50 
Cocaine,  173,  182 
Cochrane,  Lord,  31 
Cocoa,  150,  182 
Cocotea,  192 
Coffee,  147-8,  182 
Colan,  192 
Collas,  the,  21 
Colombia,  Exports  to,  183 

, Frontier,  1 

Colonisation,  73,  74-5,  88,  156-8 
Commercial  Laws,  97-100 
, 1 6 — (a*47) 


Commercial  Travellers,  98-100 

Treaties,  221-2 

Condesuyos  (prov.),  61 
Condurango  Bark,  182 
Congress,  80-81 
Conoche,  Lake,  10 
Constitution,  80,  82-3 
Consuls,  222-3 
Contamana,  192 
Contumaza  (prov.),  63 

(town),  192 

Copper,  161-2,  165-6,  183 
Cordilleras,  3,  6. 

Coropuna  (mb.),  3 
Corrales  (distr.),  79 
Cotabambas  (prov.),  60 
Cotahuasi,  192 
Cotton,  Culture,  145-6  157 

, Manufacture,  172 

, Exports,  182-3 

Cotton  seed,  182 

— Oil,  173-4,  182 

Cake,  173-4,  182 

Councils,  Administrative,  82 
Cui,  18 

Currency,  General  Table,  220 

, Peruvian,  220 

Cuzco  (dep.),  63-5 

(prov.),  64 

, 40,  193 

, Early  civilisation  and  re- 
mains, 50-51. 

, Knot  of,  4 

Debt,  Foreign,  89 

, Internal,  90 

Departments  and  Provinces,  55-79 

, Administration,  82 

Diplomatic  Representatives,  222-3 
Disease,  11-12,  102-3 
Districts,  Administration,  82 
Dos  de  Mayo  (prov.),  66 
Dried  foods,  175 

Duties,  Import  and  Export,  178 

Echinique,  J.  R.,  38 
Ecuador,  Frontier,  1-2 

, Exports  to,  183 

Education,  104-5 
El  Obispo,  41-2 
Electoral  Law,  36 
Electricity,  173 


INDEX 


230 

Embira,  River,  8 
Engineering,  173 
Ensenada,  La,  :'°3 
'ten,  133,  19? 
r-xecutive,  81 
Expenditure,  90-94 
Explosives.  See  Arms. 

Exports,  178,  182-3 

Fauna,  16-19 
Ferreflafe,  193 
Ferrol  Bay,  132 
Finance,  National,  85-94 
Fish,  16 
Flax,  150 
Flora,  13-16 
Flour,  174,  182 
Foreigners,  Rights  of,  82,  96-7 
France,  Exports  to,  183 

, Imports  from,  181 

Fruits,  13 

(export),  183 

Furniture,  175 
(imports),  181 

Gamarra,  Agustin,  38 
Gasca,  Pedro  de  la,  28 
Gasoline,  182 
Gazetteer,  184-211 
Germany,  Exports  to,  183 

, Imports  from,  181 

Goat  Skins,  76,  182 

Gold,  160,  163-4,  166,  183 

Government,  80-38 

Goyllarisquisga,  193 

Grace-Donoughmore  Contract,  86 

Grand  Chimu.  See  Chan  Chan. 

Grapes,  148 

Grazing,  158-9 

Guadalupe,  194 

Guanaco,  17 

Guanape,  194 

Guano,  87-8,  154-6,  182 

Harbours.  See  Ports. 
Hatuncolla,  49 
Health,  11-12 

, Public,  102-3 

Heath,  194 
Hemp,  150 
Herrada,  Juan  de,  28 
Hides  and  Skins,  Imports,  181 


Hides  and  Skins,  Exports,  182 
Honey,  183 

Hong-Kong,  Imports  from,  181 
Homs,  182 
Horsehair,  183 

House  of  Representatives,  80-1 
Huaca  Tambo,  41 
Huacachina  Lake,  67 
Huacas,  41-2 
Huacho,  131,  194 
Huailas  (prov.),  59 
Hualgayoc  (prov.),  63 

(town),  194 

Huallaga  (prov.),  78 

, River,  8,  10,  121 

Huamachaco  (prov.),  70 
— : — (town),  194 
Huamalies  (prov.),  66 
Huancabamba  (prov.),  76 

(town),  194 

Huancane  (prov.),  77 

(town),  195 

Huancavelica  (dep.),  65-6 

(prov.),  65 

— (town),  195 

Huancayo  (prov.),  69 

(town),  195 

Huanchaco,  133,  195 
Huanta  (prov.),  62 
— — - (town),  195 
Huantar,  53 

Huanaco.  See  Guanaco. 
Huanuco  (dep.),  66-7 

(prov.),  66 

(town),  195 

Viejo,  53 

Huaras  (prov.),  59 

(town),  196 

, River,  10 

Huarcu,  41 
Huari  (prov.),  59 

(town),  196 

Huarmey,  196 
Huarochiri  (prov.),  72 
Huascar  (ironclad),  34 
Huascaran  (mt.),  3 
Humboldt  Current,  4,  12 

Ica  (dep.),  67 

(prov.),  67 

(town),  196 


INDEX 


231 


Ichu  Grass,  14 
Iglesias,  Miguel,  36,  38 
Ilo  (Ylo),  town,  130,  196 
Immigration,  108-9 
Imports  and  Exports,  178-183 

analysed,  179-182 

Inambari,  196 
Inapari  (Tacna),  196 
Inca  and  Pre-inca  Ruins,  39-54 
Incas,  the,  21-2,  23-4,  39-41 

, Convents,  43 

Independence,  Bahia,  197 
India,  Imports  from,  181 
Indian  Corn.  See  Maize. 
India-rubber.  See  Rubber. 
Individual  Liberty,  95-6 
Inland  Communication,  Roads, 
110-114 

, Railways,  114-120 

, Waterways,  120-122 

Intihuatanas,  52,  53 
Iquitos,  197 

, Communication  with  Lima, 

140-1 

, Shipping  returns  (1912), 

138-9 

, Steamship  s.ervice,  219 

— , Telegraphs,  216-7 

(See  also  " Central  ” and 
" N'ortkern  ” routes) 

Iron,  164 
Islay  (prov.),  61 

(town),  197,  130 

Italy,  Imports  from,  181 
Exports  to,  183 

Ja£n  (prov.),  63 

(town),  197 

Jauja  (prov.),  69 

(town),  197 

, River,  9 

Javary,  River,  10,  121 
Jessup.  See  Yessup. 

Judiciary,  81-2 
Juli,  198 
Juliaca,  198 
Junln  (dep.),  67-9 

, Battle  of,  31 

, Lake,  68 

•‘  Knots,’*  3-4 


La  Convenci6n  (prov.),  64 
La  Mar  (prov.),  62 
La  Serna,  31 
La  Sucre,  Genr  31 
La  Uni6n  (pro  61 
Labour,  107-8,  166 
Lamar  y Cortazar,  Jos6  de,  38 
Lambayeque  (dep.),  69-70 

(town),  133-4,  198 

Lampa  (prov.),  77 

(town),  198 

Lamud,  198 

Land  Mortgage  Companies,  100 

Land  tenure,  156-8 

Languages,  103-4 

Lard,  174 

Lead,  162,  183 

Legislature,  80-1 

Leguia,  A.  B.,  38 

Leticia,  198 

Llama,  17,  159,  182 

Llata,  199 

Libertad,  La  (dep.),  70-1 

(town),  198 

Lima  (dep.),  71-2 

(prov.),  72 

(town),  198-9 

Commercial  Exchange,  97 

, occupation  by  Chile,  35 

, Public  institutions,  105-6 

, Revolution  of  1895,  36 

, 1914,  37 

Lircay,  1 99 
Loans.  See  Finance. 

Lobitos,  136,  199 
Loja,  Knot  of,  4 
Lomas,  Puerto,  199 
Loreto  (dep.),  72-4 

(town),  199 

Lucanas  (prov.),  62 
Lumber,  Imports  (1910),  180 
Luque,  Hernando  de,  22 
Luya  (prov.),  58 

Maccaroni,  174 
Macchu  Pichu,  53 
Macusani,  200 
Madre  de  Dios  (dep.),  74-5 

, River,  8,  121 

Magdalena,  200 
Maguey , 14 


INDEX 


232 

Mainas  (former  dep.),  72 
Maize,  14,  146-7,  183 
Mala,  200 
Malabrigo,  200 
Malaria,  5 
Maldonado,  200 
Mama  Ocllo,  46 
Manatee  (Sea-cow),  16 
Manco  Capac,  46 

, Rock  of,  47-8 

Manco,  Inca,  26-7 
Mancora,  200 
Manioc,  147 
Manseriche,  Falls  of,  9 
Mantaro,  River,  9-10 
Manu  (prov.),  74 

(town),  200 

Manufactures  and  Minor  Indus- 
tries, 171-177 

Maranon,  River,  8,  9,  57-8,  121. 

See  also  Amazon,  River. 
Marriage  Laws,  36 
Masisea,  200 
Matches,  174 
Matucana,  200 

Medicines  and  Drugs,  Imports 
(1910),  180 

Mendoza,  Antonio  de,  28 

, Andres  Hurtado  de,  28 

Menendez,  Manuel,  38 
Menocucho,  201 
Merced,  La,  113,  201 
Mica,  162-3 

Mines,  Mining,  and  Minerals, 
160-170 

, Export  (1910),  182-3 

, Laws,  161,  167-170 

, Output  (1910,  1911),  167 

Ministers,  81 
Miraflores,  Battle  of,  35 
Moche,  41 

Mochica  language,  20 
Mollendo,  88,  128-30,  210 
Montana,  the,  7 

, Concessions  of  land,  158 

, Flora,  15 

, Government  control,  37 

Montero,  L.,  38 
Moquegua  (dep.),  75 

(town),  201 

Morococha,  201 


Morro  Hill,  35 
Mountain  Sickness,  1 1 
Moyobamba  (prov.),  78 

(town),  201 

Mulberries,  13 
Mummies,  44 
Muyna,  49 

Nasca,  202 

, Early  civilisation,  40 

Nauta,  202 

Navigable  Rivers,  120-122 
Navy,  84 
Nazareth,  202 
Nepena,  41 
New  Granada,  30 
Newspapers,  106-7 
Nitrate,  32,  164 
Nopal.  13-14 
"Northern”  route,  111 

OcoSa,  202 
Olives,  13,  148-9,  182 
Ollantaitambo,  41,  51-2 
Onions,  182 

Orbegoso,  Luis  Jose,  38 
Oroya,  La,  202 
Otusco  (prov.),  70 

(town),  202 

Oyon,  202 

Pacasmayo  (prov.),  70 

(town),  133,  202 

Pachacamac,  43-4 
Pachitea,  River,  8,  10,  121 
Paints,  Dyes,  Varnishes 
(Imports  1910),  180 
Paita  (prov.),  76 

, (town),  134-6,  203 

, Shipping  returns  (1912),  135 

Palzada,  La.  See  Pizarro. 
Pallasca  (prov.),  59 
Palpa,  203 
Pampa  Blanca,  203 
Pampas,  203 

" Panama  ” hats,  175,  182 
Papaya,  15 
Paper,  174,  175-6 

, Imports  (1910),  180 

Paramonga,  203 
Parchment,  175,  182 
Pardo,  Jose,  38 


INDEX 


233 


Pardo,  Manuel.  33,  38 
Parinacocha,  Lake,  62 
Parinacochas  (prov.),  62 
Paruro  (prov.),  64 
Pasco  (prov.),  69 

, Knot  of,  4 

Patapo,  203 
Pat&s  (prov.),  70 
Pativilca,  203 
Paucartambo  (prov.),  64 

(town),  203 

, River,  9 

Pausa,  203 

Pepper,  182.  See  also  Aji. 
Perene  Colony,  88 
Peru,  Boundaries,  1 -2 

, Chief  Towns,  184-211 

, Climate  and  Health,  11-12 

, Constitution,  80,  82-3 

, Defence,  83-4 

, Departments  and  Provinces, 

55-79 

, Fauna,  16-19 

, Flora,  13-16 

, Geography  and  Physical 

Features,  1-11 

, Government,  80-83 

, History,  20-38 

, Lakes,  4,  11 

, Languages,  103-4 

, List  of  Presidents,  37-8 

, Mountains,  3,  4,  6 

, Population,  20,  55-7 

, Rivers,  7-1 1 

Peruvian  Corporation,  85-9 
Petroleum,  79,  162,  182 
Pezet,  J.  A.,  38 
Pezuela,  30-1 
Pichis,  River,  111-4,  121 
Pierola,  Nicolas  de,  36 
Pimentel,  204 
Piquillacha,  49 
Pisacoma,  204 

Pisagua,  Chilean  landing  at,  35 
Pisac,  52-3 
Pisco  (prov.),  67 

(town),  41,  127,  204 

Piura  (dep.),  75-6 

(prov.),  76 

(town),  204 

Pizarro,  Francisco,  22-28 


Pizarro,  Gonzalo,  28 

, Hernandes,  25-27,  43 

Pizarro,  Puerto,  204 
Playa  Chica,  204 
Police,  84 

Pomabamba  (prov.),  59 

(town),  205 

Poopo,  Lake,  6 
Population,  20,  55-7 
Ports  and  Harbours,  123-141 
Postal  Guide,  213-217 

, Internal  tariff,  214 

, External  tariff,  215 

, England-Peru,'  216 

Potatoes,  14,  147. 

See  also  Chalonas. 

Potosi,  Knot  of,  4 
Pozuzo,  156 
Prado,  M.  I.,  38 
President  (powers),  81 
Presidents,  List  of,  37-8 
Press,  the.  See  Newspapers. 
Provinces,  55-79 

■,  Administration,  82 

Pucalpa,  205 
Punas,  6 
Puno  (dep.),  76-8 

(prov.),  77 

(town),  205 

, Early  remains,  44-49 

Punta,  La,  205 
Puquio,  205 
Purus,  River,  8 
Putumayo,  River,  37 

Quicksilver,  66,  67,  164 
Quijana,  49 
Quilca,  128,  205 
Quinua,  14 

Quispicanchi  (prov.),  64 
Quisque,  41 
Quishuar,  14 

Rada.  See  Herrada. 
Railways,  114-120 

, List  of,  116-7 

, Central,  117-8 

, Southern,  118-9 

, Projected,  119-20. 

See  also  under  Departments , 
Ramie,  150 


234 


INDEX 


Ramirez,  General,  30 
Rarubo,  205 
Recuay,  205 
Religion,  83 
Requena,  205 
Reventazon,  205 
Revenue,  90-94 
Rhatany  root,  182 
Rice,  146,  182 

, Mills,  173 

Rimac,  River,  10-11 
Riva  Aguero,  Jos6  de,  31,  37 
Roads,  Inca,  24,  110 
Roads,  Present  day,  110-114 
Romafia,  E.  de,  38 
Rosas  Pata,  53 
Rubber,  139,  151-4,  182 

Sacsahuaman,  50 
Salaverry,  132,  206 

, Felipe  S.  de,  38 

Salinas  de  Huecho,  206 

Otuna,  206 

Salt,  164,  183 
Sama,  206 
Samanco,  131-2,  206 
Samples,  Commercial,  98-100 
San  Bartholomfe  de  Chaco,  206 
San  Carlos,  206 
San  Francisco,  Battle  of,  35 
San  Jose,  206 

San  Juan  de  la  Virgen  (distr.),  79 
San  Lorenzo,  63 
San  Luis  de  Shuaro,  113-4 
San  Martin,  (dep.),  78 
— — (prov.),  78 

, Jos6  de,  31,  37 

San  Miguel,  206 
San  Nicolcis,  206 
San  Pedro  de  Lloc,  207 
San  Roman,  Miguel,  38 
Sandia  (prov.),  77 

(town),  207 

Santa  (prov.),  59 

(town),  41,  207 

, River,  10,  58-9 

Santa  Ana,  207 

Santa  Cruz,  Andres,  31,  38 

Santiago  de  Chuco,  (prov.),  70 

(town),  207 

Santo  Torahs,  207 


Saposoa,  207 
Sarsaparilla,  150 
Sayan,  207 
Sechura,  208 
Senate,  80-1 
Sheep,  69 

Shipping  Documents,  100 
Shirtings,  182 
Sicuani,  208 
Sierra,  the,  3,  5-7 

, Early  Civilisat  ion  , 44-53 

, Early  Architecture,  54 

, Flora,  14 

Silk,  Imports  (1910),  180 
Silkworm,  60 
Sillustani,  48 
Silver,  162,  165-6,  183 
Smelting,  173 
Soap,  174 

Social  Conditions,  94-109 
Sorghum,  14 

Soroche  (Mountain  sickness),  11 
Soto,  Hernando  de,  25-6 
Spain,  Revolt  from,  30-31 

, War  of,  1864-6,  33 

, Imports  from,  181 

, Exports  to,  183 

Steamship  Services,  217-220 
Sugar,  Culture,  145,  157 

, Refining,  171-2 

, Export,  182 

Sulphur,  162-3 
Supe,  131,  208 
Superior  Courts,  82 
Supreme  Court,  81 
Swine,  159 

Tablones,  208 
Tacna,  2,  36,  78 

, Battle  of,  35 

. See  also  Inapari. 

Tagua  (Ivory  nuts),  139,  150-1, 183 
Tahuamanu  (prov.),  74 

(town),  208 

Talara,  136,  208 
Tallow,  182 
Tambo,  208 

de  Mora,  127,  208 

Tambobamba,  209 
Tambopata  (prov.),  74 
Tanning,  174-75 


INDEX 


235 


Tarapaca,  2,  36 

, Campaign  and  loss  of,  34-5 

Tarapoto,  209 
Tarma  (prov.),  69 

(town),  113,  209 

Taxes,  Collection  of,  94 
Tayabamba,  209 
Tayacaja  (prov.),  65 
Telegraph  Service,  216-7 
Telephones,  217 
Temperature,  12 
Terciana,  5 

Textiles,  Manufacture,  172 

, Imports,  179-80 

Theatrical  troupes,  99 
Tiahuanaco,  21,  40,  44-46 
Ticlio,  209 
Titicaca,  Lake,  6 

, Navigation,  120 

, Battle  of,  31 

, Island,  46-48 

Tobacco,  149,  174 
Toledo  (viceroy),  29 
Transport.  See  Inland  Communt- 
^ cation 

Travellers’  Samples,  etc.  See  also 
Postal  Guide 

Treaties  and  Conventions,  Com- 
mercial, 221-2 

Trees.  See  Flora;  Forest  Products. 
Tres  Palos,  209 
Trujillo  (prov.),  70 

(town),  209 

, Early  civilisation,  40-42 

Tumbes  (litt.  prov.),  78-9 

(distr.),  79 

(town),  137,  210 

Tungsten,  164 

Tupac  Amaru,  Inca,  29-30 

Ucayali  (prov.),  73 

, River,  8,  9,  121 

Umayo,  Lake,  48 
Uni6n.  La,  210 

United  Kingdom,  Imports  from, 
181 

, Exports  to,  183 

United  States,  Imports  from, 
181,  182 

, Exports  to  (1910),  183 


Urcos,  210 

Urubamba  (prov.),  64 

(town),  210 

, River,  8,  64,  121 

Valverde,  Vicente,  25 
Vanadium,  162,  165-6,  183 
Vegetable  Ivory.  See  Tagua. 
Vegetables  (exports),  182 
Vegueta,  210 
Vela,  Blasco  Nunez,  28 
Vicuna,  17 
Vilcamayo,  River,  9 
Vilcanota,  Knot  of,  4 

, River,  8 

Vines,  148 
Viracocha,  45,  49 
Viscacha,  18 
Vivanco,  Manuel  I,  38 

Waterways,  120-122 
Wearing  Apparel,  Imports  (1910), 
180 

Weights  and  Measures,  220-1 
Wines,  Export,  183 

Manufacture,  173 

Wool,  Export,  159,  182 

, Imports  (1910),  179 

, Manufacture  159 

Yam,  147 
Yanaoco,  210 
Yarn,  182 
Yareta,  15 
Yauyos  (prov.),  72 

(town),  211 

Yea.  See  lea. 

Yessup,  211 
Ylo.  See  Ilo. 

Yonan,  211 
Yucay,  51 
Yuncas,  the,  20-21 
Yungay  (prov.),  59 

(town) , 211 

Yurimaguas,  211 

Zarumilla  (distr.),  79 

(town),  211 

Zorritos,  211  ) 


PrinUd  by  Sir  Itaac  Pitman  & Sont,  Lid.,  Bath. 
(«47> 


. 


